This book is bound up from the advance 
sheets of RIDPATH'S INDUCTIVE GRAMMAR in 
which the plate corrections have not been made. 
The corrected edition, intended for general circu- 
lation, will be ready after a few weeks, when 
supplies may be procured. A copy of the cor- 
rected edition, when ready, will be given in 
exchange for this book if desired. 

Cincinnati, Sept. 25, 1880. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

mm J 



LMEBICA. 



Inductive Series. 



AN 



INDUCTIVE GRAMMAR 



OF 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



FOR THE USE OF 



COMMON AND GRADED SCHOOLS. 



BY 

JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, A.M., LL.D., 

Professor of Belles- Lettres and History, Author of Ridpath's Histories of the United 
States, etc., etc. 




JONES BEOTHEES & COMPANY: 

CINCINNATI, PHILADELPHIA, CHICAGO. 

1880. 






Copyright, 1880, by John T. Jones. 



EI.ECTROTYPED AT 

FBANKLIN TYPE FOUNDRY 

CINCINNATI 



PREFACE. 



Several, circumstances have lately conspired to give to 
English Grammar a form more consistent and philosophical 
than it has hitherto possessed. Philology has risen to the 
rank of a science — one of the most fascinating of all the sci- 
ences ; and Grammar, in common with the correlated branches 
of language-study, has rapidly approximated a more rational 
standard. This treatise has been undertaken and brought to 
completion in the hope of presenting to the public the best 
results of recent inquiry as shown in the formal Grammar of 
our mother tongue. 

I have ventured to call the present work An Inductive 
Grammar of the English Language. I use the word 
" Inductive' 7 in the title because it has been my purpose, as far 
as practicable, to reach the principles of the science by an ex- 
amination of the language itself. I do not claim that to the 
subject-matter of Grammar, considered as a science, the induct- 
ive method is universally applicable. There are parts — many 
parts — in which Deduction is more successfully employed. In 
such parts it would be worse than folly to use the poorer 
method for the sake of the theory. Let the general purpose 
of fixing the science on the basis of fact, be kept in view, and 
the method be made sufficiently flexible to secure that result. 

A word as to the relative value of Usage and Law in de- 
termining the principles of Grammar : Usage may be ever so 
contradictory and absurd; but the true law of language, when 
once that law is discovered, is always found to be uniform and 
consistent with itself. Too much deference to the vices and 
inconsistencies of usage has been the crying sin of many 
grammarians and lexicographers. 

Under the general plan presented above, it has been the 
author's aim to attend to several important particulars: 

(iii) 



iv PKEFACE; 

I. To reduce the 'present work to as small a compass as is 
consistent with a comprehensive exposition of the principles of 
the science. It has not been the aim to make the work a 
mere synopsis or epitome of grammatical principles; still, the 
author recognizes the fact that brevity is the best part of art. 
To secure the same it has been found necessary to avoid re- 
dundancies and repetitions, and to exclude extraneous matter. 

II. To simplify every part of the treatise as much as possi- 
ble. I am convinced that the science of Grammar has been 
needlessly perplexed with hair-splittings of etymology and va- 
riations of syntax quite foreign to the simple and severe 
genius of the English tongue. In this respect I have made a 
few radical departures from the customary methods. 

III. To clear the wo?% as far as practicable, of any admixt- 
ure of the other sciences. Grammar is grammar. Bhetoric has 
its own sphere; so, also, has logic. All attempts to consider the 
three together will end in confusion. No two sciences can be 
successfully taught from one text -book. In the present work 
the principles of rhetoric and logic will not be discussed, ex- 
cept in so far as those principles lie distinctly within the 
sphere of Grammar. 

Having said thus much, by way of preface, as to the gen- 
eral scope of the work here presented to the public, I leave 
the merits of the book to the discrimination of those to whom 
it is more particularly addressed. I sincerely trust that the 
Teachers of our country may find the work to be, in some 
measure at least, the realization of the author's hope and 
purpose. 

J. C. R. 

Indiana Asbury University, 
September 1st, 1880. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE NOUN, , 


. 48-77 


I. Classification, . 


. 48-52 


II. Properties, . 


. 53-69 


1. Gender, 


. 53-57 


2. Number, 


. 57-G3 


3. Person, 


. 63-65 


4. Case, 


. 65-69 





PAGE. 




PAGE. 


PREFACE, . . . 


iii, iv 


III. Declension, . 


. 69-71 






IV. Parsing, 


72-77 


CHAPTER I. 




CHAPTER IV. 




First Principles, . 


. 7-10 










THE PRONOUN, . 


78-95 






I. Classification, . 
II. Declension, 


78-82 




83-89 






1. Of Personals, . 


83- S5 


Part I— Etymology. 


2. Of Relatives, . 

3. Of Interrogates, . 


85-87 
83 






4. Of Indefinites, . 
III. Parsing, .... 


83-89 


CHAPTER II. 


89-95 


I. General, Analysis, 


. 11,12 


CHAPTER V. 




II. Orthography, 

III. Syllabication, . 

IV. Orthoepy, 

V. Derivation, . 
VI. Classification, . 
VII. Inflection, . 


. 12-22 
. 23-25 
. 25-30 
. 31-35 
. 36-38 
. 39-47 


THE ADJECTIVE, . 
I. Classification, 

1. Descriptive Adjectives, 

2. Definitive Adjectives, 
II. Comparison, 


96-117 
96-108 
97-99 
99-108 
109-113 



1. The Positive Degree, . 109 

2. The Comparative De- 

gree. .... 110 

3. The Superlative Degree, 111 

4. Irregular Comparison, 111-113 
III. Parsing, .... 114-117 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE VERB, 118-171 

I. Classification, . . 118-124 
(v) 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



II. Properties, 

1. Voice 

2. Mode, . 

3. Tense, . 

4. Number and Person, . 

III. Conjugation, . 

1. The Substantive Verb, 

2. The Verb "To Love." 

3. The Verb "To See," . 

4. The Verb " To Love " 

(Passive Voice), 

5. The Verb " To Walk " 

(Progressive Form), 

6. The Verb " To Take " 

(Emphatic Form), . 

7. The Verb " To Learn " 

(Negative Form), . 

8. The Verb " To Give " 

(Interrogative Form), 

9. Irregular Verbs— Table, 
10. Defective Verbs, . 

IV. Parsing, .... 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE ADVERB, .... 
I. Classification, 
II. Comparison, 
III. Parsing, .... 

CHAPTER VIII. 

THE PREPOSITION, 
I. Classification, 
II. Parsing, 



PAGE. 

124-133 
124,125 
125-131 
131,132 
132,133 
134-165 
138-142 
143-146 
147-150 



185-188 
185-187 
187-188 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE CONJUNCTION, . 
I. Classification, 
II. Parsing, 

CHAPTER X. 
THE INTERJECTION, . 



189-195 
189-193 
194 ,195 



196-198 



Part II— Syntax, 



CHAPTER XL 

PAGE. 

First Principles, . . 199-201 

CHAPTER XII. 

ANALYSIS, 201-248 

I. Classification of Sen- 



150-153 




TENCES, . . . . 


201-204 




II 


. Elements, .... 


205-208 


153-156 


III 


. The Simple Sentence, 


209-228 




IV 


. The Complex Sen- 




156,157 




tence 


229-239 




V 


The Compound Sen- 




157, 158 




tence, . . . . 


240-248 


158 




CHAPTER XIII. 




158-164 








165 


SYNTHESIS 


249-306 


166-169 


I. 


General Relations of 








Words 


249-250 




II. 


Rules of Syntax, . 


250-306 






1. Rules of Synthesis, 


251-275 






2. Rules of Collocation, . 


276-282 


172-184 




3. Rules of Punctuation, 


283-303 


172-179 




(a) Temporal Pauses, . 


284-295 


179-181 




(b) Official Points, 


295-303 


181-184 




4. Figures, . . . . 


303-306 



Part III —Prosody, 



CHAPTER XIV. 



I. First Principles, 
II. Feet, 
III. Meter, . 
IV. Rhyme, . 
V. The C.esura, 
VI. Stanzas, 
VII. Scansion, 



307-308 
308-312 
312-314 
314-316 
317 
318-320 
321-322 



INDEX, . 



English Grammar. 



CHAPTER I. 

FIRST PRINCIPLES. 



1. When we perceive any thing we form a Mental 
Picture of that thing. 

2. The mental picture which we form of any thing 
is called an Idea. 

3. When an idea is expressed by means of a sym- 
bol we call the symbol a Word. 

1. Sometimes an idea is expressed by an utterance of the 
voice. In that case we have a spoken word. 

2. Sometimes an idea is represented by written or printed 
characters. In that case we have a ivritten or printed word. 

3. The written or printed word represents, first, the spoken 
word; and, secondly, the idea expressed by that word. 

4. The process of combining ideas in the mind is 
called Thinking. 

5. The union of two ideas in the mind is called a 
Thought. 

6. A thought expressed in words is called a Sentence. 

7. An assemblage of sentences in proper relation with 
each other constitutes Language. 

(7) 



8 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

We thus come to the following 

DEFINITIONS. 

L An idea is a mental picture of any thing. 

2. A word is the sign of an idea. 

3. A thought is the union of two ideas in the mind. 

4. A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 

5. Language is a combination of sentences in proper relation 
with each other. 

8. The following extracts are examples of written 
language : 

1. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy 
dies in me. When I read the epitaphs of the beautiful, every in- 
ordinate desire goes out. When I meet with the grief of parents 
upon a tombstone, my heart melts with compassion. When I see 
the tomb of the parents themselves, I consider the vanity of griev- 
ing for those whom we must quickly follow. When I see kings 
lying by those who deposed them; when I consider rival wits 
placed side by side, or the holy men that divided the world with 
their contests and disputes, I reflect with sorrow and astonishment 
on the little competitions, factions, and debates of mankind. 

— Addison. 

2. To him who, in the love of Nature, holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language : for his gayer hours 

She has a voice of gladness, and a smile 
And eloquence of beauty; and she glides 
Into his darker musings with a mild 
And gentle sympathy, that steals away 
Their sharpness, ere he is aware. — Bryant. 

9. If we study the language presented in these ex- 
tracts, we shall find our inquiry to be twofold : — 

1. An examination into the nature of the ivords ; and, 

2. An inquiry into the relations which the words sustain 
to each other in the sentences. 



FIEST PKINCIPLES. 9 

10. That branch of study which investigates the nat- 
ure of the words in a language is called Etymology. 

The word etymology is derived from the Greek words, 
etymon, meaning true sense; and logos, meaning doctrine. 

11. That branch of study which investigates the re- 
lation of words to each other in sentences is called Syntax. 

The word syntax is derived from the Greek words, syn, 
meaning together; and taxis, meaning arrangement. 

12. That science which embraces the etymology and 
syntax of a language is called Grammar. 

13. The grammar of the language spoken by the 
people of the English race is called English Grammar. 

Thus we come to the following 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. Etymology is the science which treats of the true nature 
of words. 

2. Syntax is the science which treats of the relations of 
words in sentences. 

3. Grammar is the science which includes the etymology 
and syntax of a language. 

4. English Grammar is the grammar of the language spoken 
by the people of the English race. 

As an Art. — Considered in its practical application, English Gram- 
mar is the art of speaking and writing the English language according 
to its Law and Usage. 

14. By examining the specimens of written language 
given on the preceding page, we shall find that they 
differ from each other in form : 



10 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

1. That form of language in which the first extract is writ- 
ten is called Prose. 

2. That form of language in which the second extract is 
written is called Verse. 

3. Grammar is the same in both prose and verse; but, 

4. Verse has certain peculiarities and principles of its own. 

5. That branch of study which investigates the peculiarities 
and principles of verse is called Prosody. 

15. Definition. — Prosody is the science which treats 
of the principles and construction of verse. * 

GENERAL ANALYSIS. 

In the present work, therefore, English Grammar 
will be considered under three heads: 

I. Etymology — 

Which treats of the true nature of the words of 
the English language. 

II. Syntax — 

Which treats of the relations that words sustain 
to each other in sentences in the English lan- 
guage. 

III. Prosody — 

Which treats of the principles and construction 
of verse in the English language. 



♦Prosody may be regarded as belonging either to Grammar or to Rhetoric. 
So far as versification is concerned, the subject is grammatical ; so far as poetry 
proper is concerned, it is rhetorical. In the present treatise Prosody will be 
considered as the third general division of Grammar. 



PART I. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER II. 

SECTION I. — GENERAL ANALYSIS. 

1. Etymology is that division of Grammar which treats 
of words considered in their essential nature. 

Extract. — There, in the faint light, were the English soldiers on a 
hill ; a wood behind them ; in their midst the royal banner, rep- 
resenting a fighting warrior woven in gold thread, adorned with 
precious stones. Beneath the banner, as it rustled in the wind, 
stood King Harold on foot, with two of his remaining brothers 
by his side. Around them, still and silent as the dead, clustered 
the whole English army — every soldier covered by his shield, and 
bearing in his hand the dreaded English battle-axe. — Dickens. 

2. If we study the nature of the tvords composing this 
extract, we shall find that our inquiry will embrace the 
following particulars : 

1. The spelling of the words; 

2. The division of the words into parts; 

3. The pronunciation of the words; 

4. The sources from which the words are derived; 

5. The classification of the words according to their offices; 

6. The modifications of the words in form ; 

7. The properties or qualities of the words. 

(11) 



1 2 ENGLISH -GKAMMAK. 

3. That part of Etymology which treats of the cor- 
rect spelling of words is called Orthography. 

4. That branch of the subject which considers the di- 
vision of words into parts is called Syllabication. 

5. That branch which treats of the proper pronunci- 
ation of words is called Orthoepy. 

6. That division which explains the sources from 
which words are derived is called Derivation. 

7. That part of Etymology which treats of the ar- 
rangement of words into groups according to the offices 
which they perform, is called Classification. 

8. That branch of the subject which considers the 
changes in the forms of words is called Inflection. 

9. That division which treats of the qualities belong- 
ing to ivords in virtue of their sense and form, is called 
Grammatical Property. 

Under the above heads the subject of Etymology will 
be considered, beginning with Orthography. 



SECTION II. — ORTHOGRAPHY. 

10. Definition. — Orthography is that branch of Ety- 
mology which treats of the correct spelling of words. 

I. Letters. — Classification. 

11. A letter is an arbitrary character representing an 
elementary sound of the human voice. 



ETYMOLOGY. — OETHOGK APH Y. 1 3 

12. The letters of a language, taken together in their 
order, constitute its Alphabet. 

1. The letters of the English alphabet are twenty-six in 
number. These are : a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i 7 j, k, 1, m, n, o, 
p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. When written or printed in 
this form they are called Roman letters. 

2. Sometimes the letters are written or printed with a pe- 
cular inclination to the right — thus : a, b ) c, d, e, f, g, h, ?', 
j } k, I, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. Letters of this 
form are called Italics. 

3. Sometimes a larger and more conspicuous form of the 
letters is employed — thus: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, 
L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. In this form 
the letters are called Capitals. 

4. In writing, the following forms of letters are employed : 

@ f/ s&*, &\ <rt m^ #w #%, ^ 

7 ^ J%r %' Letters of this form are called Script. 

13. If Ave make an examination of the letters with 
respect to their sounds, we shall find that some of them 
represent fall -toned sounds, and may be produced inde- 
pendently of other sounds. Letters of this sort are called 
Vowels. 

1. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, w, y. 

2. Since, in producing the sounds represented by these let- 
ters, the vocal organs do not interfere with the passage of the 
voice, they are called Unarticulated Sounds. 



14 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

3. Sometimes two vowels are united in one syllable, as in 
the words noise, bound. Such combinations of sounds are 
called Diphthongs. 

4. Sometimes three vowels unite in one syllable, as in the 
words aye, beau, view, etc. Such combinations are called 
Triphthongs. 

14. The remaining letters of the alphabet represent 
feeble -toned or no -toned sounds, or sounds dependent 
on other sounds. To this second class of letters w T e give 
the name of Consonants. 

1. The consonants are b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, 
s, t, v, w, x, y, z. 

2. Since, in producing the sounds represented by these let- 
ters, the organs of speech interrupt the passage of the sound, 
they are called Articulated Sounds. 

3. Two of the letters, w and y, are included in both lists; 
that is, they are sometimes vowels and sometimes conso- 
nants. At the beginning of words or syllables y is a conso- 
nant ; as in yet, yellow. In all other positions it is a vowel ; 
as in %, den?/. At the beginning of words or syllables w, 
also, is a consonant; as in wet, willow. In other positions 
it is a vowel; as in view, below. 

Note. — The letter w can be a vowel only when combined with 
some other vowel; as in snow, curfew. 

15. The consonants are subdivided, according to their 
qualities, into several groups, or classes : 

1. The first class embraces those letters the sounds of which 
are completely interrupted by the contact of the vocal organs 
in producing them. Letters of this class are called Mutes. 
They are b, c hard (as in came), d, g hard (as in #ame), 
k, p, q, t 



ETYMOLOGY. — OETHOGK APH Y. 1 5 

2. The second group embraces those letters the sounds of 
which are partly interrupted. They are c soft (as in city), /, 
g soft (as in gem), v, w, y. These are called Semi -vowels. 

3. The third class embraces those letters which, from the 
flowing nature of their sounds , are called Liquids. They are 

I, m, n } r. 

4. The fourth class consists of the two letters s and 2, 
which, from their hissing sounds , are called Sibilants. 

5. The fifth division consists of the single letter A, which 
is called a Breathing, being produced by a simple impulse of the 
breath. Thus, and + h becomes Aand. 

6. The sixth class contains the single letter x, which is 
a Mute -Sibilant, being equivalent at the beginning of words 
to z, and in other positions having the force of the two con- 
sonants cs = kSj or gs ) the g being hard. 

II. Spelling.— Principles. 

16. The process of combining the letters of the alpha- 
bet so as to form words is called Spelling. 

The science of spelling is taught in spelling-books 
and dictionaries; but a few of the plainer principles 
will here be repeated : 

First Principle.— Words of one syllable ending in/, Z, or s, 
preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant. 
Examples.— Bell, call, full, hiss, skiff, etc. 

Exceptions.— As, if, is, of, us, gas, has, his, pus, this, thus, 
was, yes. 

Second Principle. — Words of a single syllable ending in any 
consonant other than/, I. or s, do not double the final letter. 
Examples. — Bad, can, far, hat, man, whip, etc. 
Exceptions. — Add, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, butt, buzz, purr. 



16 , ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Third Principle. — Words of a single syllable, and words ac- 
cented on the last syllable, when that syllable ends with a 
single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final 
consonant before all endings beginning with a vowel. 

Examples. — Cut, cutting; dim, dimmed; compel, compel- 
ling; transfer, transferred, etc. 

Fourth Principle. — In all cases other than those just de- 
scribed, and in all cases before endings beginning with a 
consonant, the final consonant of the xvovd is not doubled. 

Examples. — Add, adding; assail, assailed; prefer, prefer- 
ment; reckon, reckoning ; tax, taxing; toil, toiling. 

Note. — In such words as travel, worship, kidnap, bias, and a few 
others of the same sort, some lexicographers double the final conso- 
nant before the vowel endings ; as in traveler, worshipped, kidnappm^, 
etc. But the better rule is that indicated in the Third Principle above. 

Fifth Principle. — In words ending in e final the e is omitted 
before vowel terminations, and retained before consonant ter- 
minations. 

Examples. — Extreme, extremity, extremist ; force, forcible ; 
have, having; hope, hopeful; indulge, indulged; love, lovely; 
improve, improvement, etc. 

Exceptions. — 1. If the final e be preceded by c or g 1 the e 
is retained to preserve the soft sound of the consonant. 

Examples. — Changeable, chargeable, traceable, etc. 

2. In words ending in ee or oe the final e is also retained 
before vowel endings. 

Examples. — Fleeing, seeing, shoeing, etc. 

3. In singeing and dyeing, the e is retained to distinguish 
the words from singing and dying. 

4. When e final is preceded by dg, the e is dropped before 
the syllable ment. 

Examples. — Abridgment, judgment, lodgment, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. — OETHOGEAPHY. 1 7 

In the words awful, duly, truly, and wholly, the e is dropped. 

Sixth Principle. — Final y, unless preceded by a or o, is changed 
into i before vowel and consonant endings. 

Examples. — Beauty, beautiful; easy, easier; happy, happiest. 

Seventh Principle. — Before the ending ing, final ie is changed 
into y. 

Examples — Idle, dying-, lie, lying, etc. 

Eighth Principle. — Words ending in II drop one I before the 
syllables less and ly. In composition one I is also dropped, ex- 
cept when the part of the compound containing 11 is a noun 
or a verb, in which case both Vs are retained. 

Examples. — Full, fatty) chill, chicly; skill, skinless; smell, 
smefless; all, a/ways; hope, hopeful; recall, fulfil, niole-hi^, 
water -fa^. 

exercises. 

1. Point out the Capitals, Italics, and Roman letters em- 
ployed on page 12. 

2. Give illustration of the letters called Script. 

3. Point out the Vowels and Consonants in this stanza : 

The spirit of the South -wind calls 

From his blue throne of air, 
And where his whispering voice in music falls, 

Beauty is budding there — Pereival. 

4. Write ten words containing Diphthongs. 

5. Read a paragraph showing the difference between Ar- 
ticulated and Unarticulated sounds. 

6. Write ten words containing w or y as a vowel. 

7. Write ten words containing w or y as a consonant. 

8. Point out the Mutes and Liquids in the above stanza. 

9. Write five words illustrating each of the Principles of 
Orthography. 

10. Mention exceptions to the First, Second, and Fifth Prin- 
ciples. 



18 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

III. Capital Letters. — Rules. 

17. RULE I. —The first word of every sentence should 
begin with a capital. 

Examples. — 1. He has refused his assent to wholesome laws. 
2. We must now appeal to the sword. 

18. RULE II. —The first word of every line of poetry 
should begin with a capital. 

Example. — The piper loud and louder blew; 

The dancers quick and quicker flew. — Burns. 

Remark. — When, in humorous poetry, a word is divided at 
the end of a line, the detached syllables at the beginning of 
the next line should commence with a lower-case letter.* 

Example.— The only remedy I see 

For such abuses is the re- 
construction of society. 

19. RULE III— The first word of every direct quota- 
tion, if complete in sense, should begin with a capital. 

Example. — Pope says: " To err is human." 

Remark. — A quotation, not complete in sense, should begin 
with a lower-case letter. 

Example. — We hear much said about " the popular whim." 

20. RULE IV. — The first word of every expression hav- 
ing the form of a paragraph should begin with a capital. 

Examples. — 1. Congress has the power — 
To lay and collect taxes; 
To regulate commerce with foreign nations; 
To promote the progress of science. 



* " Lower-case" is the term applied by printers to the common size of type as 
distinguished from capitals. 



ETYMOLOGY. — ORTHOGKAPHY. 1 9 

2. Lord Byron's line, — 

"The Cincinnatus of the West,"— 
TFas written of George Washington. 

21. RULE V. — After a formal introductory expression, 
the first word of the subject-matter of a paragraph should 
begin with a capital. 

Examples. — 1. Whereas, The council of this city has been 
informed, etc. 

2. Resolved, That fifty dollars be appropriated, etc. 

22. RULE VI — Every proper noun (seepage 49) should 
begin with a capital. 

Example. — i?urgoyne, invading JVew Fork from Canada, 
was defeated by Grates at -Semis's J^eights and /Saratoga. 

Remark I. — All names of persons, places, months, days of 
the week, etc., fall under Rule VI. 

Remark 2. — Names of the seasons, unless personified, and 
points of the compass, are not proper nouns, and should be- 
gin with lower-case letters. 

Examples. — 1. In spring the winds are more variable than 
in summer. 

2. We journeyed north two days and then turned to the east. 

Remark 3. — When the names of the points of the compass 
are used to designate districts of country, they should begin 
with capitals.. 

Example.— The iVbrth and the /Sbuth met in arms. 

23. RULE VII.— All titles of office, honor, respect, and 
distinction, should begin with capitals. 

Examples. — My. Jresident; #ir Philip Sidney; Xord Bal- 
timore ; Peter the <7reat ; (General Grant ; my dear #ir t etc. 



20 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

24. RULE VIII. — All proper adjectives (see page 98) 
should begin with capitals. 

Exampl.es. — A Ionian citizen; the Z>utch fleet; the Amer- 
ican flag ; the Z?ourbon dynasty ; the Baconian philosophy. 

25. RULE IX. — The names of things personified (see 
page 56) should begin with capitals. 

Examples. — 1. Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire, 

2. O Moon ! in the night I have seen you sailing. 

3. Wan Treachery with his thirsty dagger drawn. 

26. RULE X. — All names and appellations of the Deity 
should begin with capitals. 

Examples. — The Zord; Jehovah; the Internal One; the 
great i^irst Cause. 

27. RULE XL — In the titles of books, subjects of es- 
says, and headings of chapters, every noun, verb, and ad- 
jective, should begin with a capital. 

Examples. — (Thilde .Harold's Pilgrimage ; Pope's i?ssay on 
iLfan ; the Uses and Abuses of .Language, etc. 

Remark. — In subjects, titles, headings, etc., the Articles (see 
page 99) are begun with lower-case letters — except at the begin- 
ning of the caption. 

Example. — The Purse of the Penniless. 

28. RULE XII. — The names of famous events, historical 
eras, noted documents, striking natural phenomena, etc., 
should begin with capitals. 

Examples. — The Civil TFar; the Middle Ages; the Decla- 
ration of independence; the Aurora itorealis, etc. 

29. RULE XIII. —The pronoun I and the vocative inter- 
jection should always be written as capitals. 



ETYMOLOGY. — OKTHOGKAPHY. 21 

Examples. — 1. He and I were there together. 
2. And thou, native Land, farewell ! 

Remark. — The vocative particle O should be carefully dis- 
criminated from the interjection oh. The former is used only 
before objects addressed, and is always a capital ; the latter ex-< 
presses surprise or sorrow, and, except at the commencement 
of a sentence, begins with a lower-case letter. 

30. RULE XIV.— The running-titles of books, the sub- 
jects of essays, the headings of chapters, etc., are generally 
printed in types having the same form as capitals, but smaller 
— called small capitals; as in these words. (See the head- 
lines of these pages.) 

Remark. — In all cases where capitals are not positively re- 
quired by the foregoing Kules, lower-case letters should be used. 



EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences correct the errors in the use of 
Capitals : 

1. all men are created Equal. 
v 2. forward, the Light brigade! 

3. we welcome Thee, o shadowy night I 

4. Be it Unacted, that a tax of one per cent., etc. 

5. Here We saw an equestrian statue of general marion, 

6. The lord appeared unto moses in horeb. 

7. on tuesday, the 2d of march, wild geese were seen going 
North. 

8. Hannibal was a Carthaginian, and Scipio a roman hero. 

9. the reformation, accomplished by martin luther in the 
sixteenth Century, was a Great event. 

10. We won our liberties in the am erica n revolution. 

11. The gulf stream carries the warm waters of the tropics 
for thousands of Miles. 

12. The Essay is entitled, "the recreations of the great. 77 



22 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

IV. Italics.— Rules. 

31. RULE L — Words and expressions upon which it is 
desired to lay a special emphasis are printed in italics. 

Examples. — 1. He gave his consent, but not his approval, 
2. The great argument was answered with — a sneer. 

Remark I. — Not every expression slightly emphatic should 
be printed in Italics. To be so marked the emphasis should 
be distinct and peculiar. 

Remark 2.— In writing, the words intended to be printed in 
Italics are marked with a single line drawn under them ; as in 
these words. 

Remark 3. — Words on which a very strong emphasis is de- 
sired, may be set in small capitals, or even in capitals. 

Example. — If I were an American, as I am an English- 
man, I would never submit; never, never, NEVER! 

32. RULE II. — Titles of books and poems, and names 
of newspapers, magazines, and ships, are generally printed 
in Italics. 

Examples.— Irving' s Sketch Book; Tennyson's Enoch Ar- 
den; New York Tribune; Scribner's Monthly; the Old Ironsides. 

Remark. — It is customary for a newspaper or magazine to 
set its own name in small capitals, instead of Italics. 

33. RULE III. — Quotations from foreign languages should 
be printed in Italics. 

Examples. — 1. Labor omnia vincit is a good motto. 
2. Veni, vidi f vici } were the words of the Roman general. 

exercises. 
Write five sentences illustrating the various uses of Italics. 



ETYMOLOGY. — SYLLABICATION. 23 



SECTION III. — SYLLABICATION. 

34. Definition. — Syllabication is that branch of Ety- 
mology which treats of the division of words into the 
parts of which they are composed. 

1. A part of a word which may be pronounced with a sin- 
gle impulse of the voice is called a Syllable. 

2. A word of only one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 
Examples. — Brook, field, man, sky, tree. 

3. A word containing two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 
Examples. — Com -pel, far -thing, pa -per, sil-ver. 

4. A word consisting of three syllables is called a Trisyllable. 
Examples. — Im-pli-cate, mul-ti-ply, reg-u-lar. 

5. A word consisting of more than three syllables is called a 
Polysyllable. 

Examples. — Dis - es - tab - lish, in - vin - ci - ble, re - su&- ci - tate. 

35. In the division of words into syllables two meth- 
ods are employed : 

I. The English Method. — The object in this method is to sep- 
arate the words into their elementary j)arts without regard to 
pronunciation. 

Examples under the English Method. — Me -Ion, wi- 
dow, de-li-cate, a-stro-no-my, phi-lo-so-phy, ma - the- ma - 
tics, hy-po-the-sis, etc. The peculiarity of this method is that 
it throws the consonants as much as possible into the begin- 
nings of syllables. 

II. The American Method. — The object in this method is, first, 
to indicate the proper pronunciation, and, secondly, to sepa- 
rate the -prefixes and suffixes from the roots of the ivords. 



24 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Examples under the American Method. — Mel -on, wid- 
ow, del-i-cate, as-tron-o-my, phi-los-o-phy, math- e -mat - 
ics, hy-poth-e-sis, etc. 

36. The following are the more common rules for 
syllabication according to the American Method : 

1. Consonants are joined to the vowels which they modify 
in pronunciation. 

Examples. — Em-blem-at-ic, can-non-ade ? an-i-mos-i- 
ty, de-vel-op-ment, etc. 

2. Prefixes and suffixes are separated from the root -words 
to which they belong. 

Examples. — Farm-er, out -run, re- adjust -ing, super -fine, 
trans -gress-ed, etc. 

3. In compound words the parts of the compound are sepa- 
rated in syllabication. 

Examples. — Horse -car, ice -water, land -office, sea -foam, 
sun-dial, writing -machine, etc. 

4. Such terminations as cial, tial, sion, tion, ceous, cious, 
tious , since they are pronounced as single syllables, must not 
be divided in syllabication. 

Examples. — Ben-e-fi-cial, par-tial, con-fu-sion, ad-di- 
tion, ere - ta - ceous, lus-cious, cap-tious, etc. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the Monosyllables, Dissyllables, Trisyllables, 
and Polysyllables in Extract 1, page 3rl.36 

2. According to the American Method syllabify the words 
of paragraph 15, page 10. /4 

3. Syllabify five words according to the English Method. 

4. Illustrate each of the rules under the American Method 
with five words. 



ETYMOLOGY. — OETHOEPY, 25 



SECTION IV. — ORTHOEPY. 

37. Definition. — Orthoepy is that branch of Ety- 
mology which treats of the proper pronunciation of 
words. 

The pronunciation of words has respect to two con- 
siderations : 

1; The sounds of the letters; and, 
2. Accent. 

38. Sounds of Letters. — The following table exhibits 
the correct sounds of the letters of the English alphabet : 

I. VOWELS — Regular Sounds. 

The vowel a has two regular sounds: a long, as in fate; 
a short, as in fat. 

The vowel e has two regular sounds: e long, as in mete; 
v short, as in met. 

The vowel i has two regular sounds: I long, as in fme; 
% short, as in fin. 

The vowel o has two regular sounds: o long, as in note; 
o -short, as in not. 

The vowel u has two regular sounds: u long, as in twbe; 
& short, as in tub. 

The vowel y has two regular sounds: y long) as in sty/le; 
p short, as in m/mph. 

II. VOWELS- Modified Sounds. 

The vowel a has six modified sounds: d circumflex, as~ 
in share ; a Italian, as in father ; a thin, as in grass ; 
a broad, as in talk; a abrupt (nearly equivalent to o 
short), as in what; d obscure, as in many (equivalent 
to e short). 
3 



26 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

The vowel e has four modified sounds: e circumflex, as in 
ere; e continental (equivalent to a long), as in prey; 
e narrow, as in ermine; e obscure (equivalent to I), as 
in pretty. 

The vowel i has two modified sounds: % continental (equiv- 
alent to e long), as in machine ; I narrow, as in irk- 
some. 

The vowel o has six modified sounds : 6 broad, as in or- 
der; g plaintive, as in move; o abrupt, as in wolf; 
6 obscure, as in other; 6b long, as in food; do short, 
as in wool. 

The vowel u has four modified sounds: u continental (equiv- 
alent to 6b long), as in rwle; u narrow, as in pwt; u cir- 
cumflex, as in urge; u obscure, as in be/sy. 

The vowel y has one modified sound : ij narrow, as in rm/rrh. 

Note 1. — The vowels e, i, o, are sometimes not pronounced, in which 
case they are called silent; as in fallen, cousin, mason, etc, 

Note 2. — The letter w (see page 14) is a vowel only when in com- 
bination with some other vowel. 

III. DIPHTHONGS. 

The sound of the diphthong oi is illustrated in the word 
boil. 

The sound of the diphthong oy is illustrated in the word 
ioy. 

The sound of the diphthong ou is illustrated in the word 
found. 

The sound of the diphthong ow is illustrated in the word 
hoivl. 

Note. — All the other diphthongal and triphthongal combinations in 
the English language, such as ae, ai (as in ram), ao, au, aw, awe, ay, 
aye, ea, eau, ei, eo, eou, eu, ew, ewe, ey, eye, ia, ie, ieu, lew, io, oa, oe, ou 
(as in soup), ow (as in tow), owe, ue, ui, etc., are equivalent to certain 
simple vowel sounds already denned in the above list: thus ea = e long, 
as in beat ; ei = e long, as in conceive, or a long, as in vein ; etc., etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. — ORTHOEPY. 27 

EXEIICISES. 

1. Classify the Vowels contained in the words of Extract 2, 
page 8. 

2o Illustrate with two words each the Modified vowel sounds 
of the alphabet. 

3. Write five words illustrating the Silent vowels e, i, o. 

4. Write five words illustrating the regular Diphthongs. 

5. Write ten words illustrating the other Diphthongal and 
Triphthongal combinations. 

IV. CONSONANTS. 

The consonant b has one sound, illustrated in the word 
bad. 

The consonant c has three sounds, illustrated in the words 
came (c hard), center (c soft — equivalent to s), sacri- 
fice (c = z). 

The consonant d has one sound, illustrated in the word 
dare. 

The consonant f has one sound, illustrated in the word 
fame. 

The consonant g has two sounds, illustrated in the words 
gather (g hard), and gem (g soft). 

The consonant h has one sound, illustrated in the word 
7*and. 

The consonant j has one sound, illustrated in the word 
jar. 

The consonant k has one sound, illustrated in the word 
king. 

The consonant I has one sound, illustrated in the word 
late. 

The consonant m has one sound, illustrated in the word 
merry. 

The consonant n has two sounds, illustrated in the words 
nut and linger, the latter being a semi -nasal sound. 



28 ENGLISH GKAMMAR 

The consonant p has one sound, illustrated in the word pay. 
The consonant q (always followed by u) has two sounds, 

illustrated in the words queen ( in which qu — kw ) and 

cogi^ette (in which qu = k). 

The consonant r has one sound, illustrated in the word ruin. 

Note. — Some orthoepists maintain that r has two sounds: first, the 
trilled r,.as in rock; second, the smooth r, as in fair. 

The consonant s has two sounds, illustrated in the words 
set, has (in which s = z). 

The consonant t has one sound, illustrated in the word 

tune. 

The consonant v has one sound, illustrated in the word 
?;ery. 

The consonant w has one sound, illustrated in the word 
warp. 

The consonant x has three sounds, illustrated in the words 
tax (in which x = ks), exist (in which x == gs) 1 and 
xylograph (in which x = z). 

The consonant y has one sound, illustrated in the word 
g/ear. 

The consonant z has two sounds, illustrated in the words 
zone, azure (z — zh). 

V. CONSONANTAL COMBINATIONS. 

The combinations ce, ci, are equivalent to sh; as in the words 
ocean, socml. 

The combination ch has three sounds, illustrated in the words 
cMld, chaise {ch = sh) 1 and epoch (eh = k). 

The combination gh has three sounds, illustrated in the words 
cough (gh=f)> hough (gh = k), hiecou^/i (gh=p). 

The combination ng has a nasal sound, illustrated in the word 
swing. 

The combination ph has the sound of/, as illustrated in the 
word phantom. 



ETYMOLOGY. — OKTHOEPY. 29 

The combination sh is pronounced as in the word shame. 

The combination ti is equivalent to sh; as in the words par- 
tiixl, addi^'on. 

The combination th has two sounds: first, the aspirate, as in 
the word think; second, the vocal, as in the word then. 

The combination wh is pronounced in the inverse order of 
the letters; as in the word what, pronounced hiv&t. 

39. Definition. — Accent is a peculiar stress of the 
Yoice on certain syllables of words. 

First Principle. — Monosyllables are common as to accent; 
that is, they are either accented or unaccented, according to 
the position of the words as it regards emphasis and harmony. 

Examples. — 1. These are men, not brutes. 

Here emphasis demands a strong accent on "men." 

2. We hate men only when we hate ourselves. 
Here emphasis and harmony require that we pass over the 
word "men" with but a slight touch of the voice.* 

Second Principle. — In words of two syllables the first is gen- 
erally accented; as in com / merce, log / ic, trav / el. 

Exceptions. — 1. In dissyllables derived from French the sec- 
ond is accented ; as in depot/, finance 7 , romance 7 . 

2. About eighty adjectives and verbs having the same form 
as the nouns from which they are derived, take the accent on 
the second syllable; as in the following list: 

Nouxs. Adjectives or Verbs. 

Ac'cent, stress of voice. Accent', to pronounce with force. 

Au'gust, the month. August', grand. 

Com'pact, an engagement. Compact', close. 

Min'ute of time. Minute' small. 



* In the case of monosyllables, emphasis is the rhetorical, and accent the gram- 
matical expression for the same fact, namely, a stress of voice on the word. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. A large number of miscellaneous words vary from the 
general rule by accenting the second syllable. 

Examples. — Among 7 , begin 7 , compel 7 , forget 7 , molest 7 , pro- 
claim 7 , remorse 7 , sincere 7 , etc. 

Third Principle. — In most trisyllables the first is accented. 

Examples. — Ac 7 cident, bot 7 any, cic 7 atrix, dec 7 imal, forti- 
tude, mer 7 ciless, pu 7 erile, sen 7 timent, etc. 

Exceptions. — To this principle there are many exceptions, 
for which no general rule can be given. 

Examples. — Allure 7 ment, beto 7 ken, deco 7 rum, explicit, ho- 
rizon, muse 7 um, etc. 

Fourth Principle. — In polysyllables the accent is generally 
on the antepenult — that is, the third from the last. 

Examples. — Aristoc 7 racy, barom 7 eter, cosmogony, diago- 
nal, mythology, procrastinate, supremacy, etc. 

Exceptions. — 1. To this principle the largest exception is in 
the case of words ending in -ation^ all of w T hich accent the 
penult — that is, the syllable next to the last. 

Examples. — Aberration, complication, multiplication, etc. 

2. Many other exceptions to this principle are found. 
Examples. — Americanism, disestablish, generalize, mau- 
soleum, obligatory, peace 7 ableness, etc. 

exercises. 

1. Illustrate the Consonant sounds with two words each. 

2. Illustrate the Consonantal combinations with two exam- 
ples each. 

3. Write three sentences illustrating Accented and Unac- 
cented monosyllables. 

4. Illustrate the Second, Third, and Fourth Principles with 
five words each. 

5. Write ten exceptions to the Fourth Principle. 



ETYMOLOGY. — DERIVATION. 31 

SECTION V.— DERIVATION. 

40. Definition. — Derivation is that branch of Ety- 
mology which treats of the sources of the words of a 
language, and the laws by which they are formed. 

41. The sources from which the words of the English 
language are taken are of two kinds: 

1. Present sources, — that is, such word -forms in the lan- 
guage as have given rise to other word- forms. That part of 
etymology which treats of the present sources of English 
words is called Paronymous Derivation. 

2. Foreign sources, — that is, such word-forms in other lan- 
guages as have given rise to word- forms in the English lan- 
guage. That part of etymology which treats of the foreign 
sources of the language is called Historical Derivation. 

I. Paronymous Derivation. 

42. English words are derived from other English 
words in several ways:. 

1. Nouns from nouns-* 

Examples. — Bandage, from band ; fishery, from fish ; king- 
dom, from king; manhood and man&mcZ, from man; horse's, 
and horses, from horse; child's and children, from child; and 
all variations for gender, number, case, etc. (See pp. 36-40-, 69.) 

39- s/3 

2. Adjectives from nouns. 

Examples. — Manft/, from man ; queen^/, from queen ; star- 
ry, from star ; wonder/^Z, from wonder ; etc. 

3. Verbs from nouns. 

Examples. — To crow, from crow, to game, from game; to 
mouth, from mouth ; to name, from name ; etc. 



*For meaning of nouns, adjectives, etc., see pages S2-3*. 



32 ENGLISH GKAMMAB. 

4. Nouns from adjectives. 

Examples. — Goodness, from good; haziness, from nappy; 
-purity, from pure ; rationalism, from rational ; truth, from true ; 
wisdom, from wise ; etc. 

5. Adjectives from adjectives. 

Examples. — Duller, from dull; happier, from happy; mer- 
riest, from merry ; and all examples of comparison. ( See p. 110.) 

6. Verbs from adjectives. 

Examples, — To cool, from cool; to long, from long; to 
slow 1 from slow; to tame 7 from tame; etc. 

7. Nouns from verbs. 

Examples. —Break, from to break; call, from to call; 
dance, from to dance; run, from to run; etc. 

8. Verbs from verbs, or from verbs and prepositions. 

Examples. — Become, from be and come; bedeck, from be 
and deck ; interchange, from inter and change ; gainsay, from 
against and say; and all forms of verbs derived by conjuga- 
tion. (See pages 134r-T3&.y&4/ 

9. Adverbs from adjectives. 

Examples. — Bad£?/, from bad; calmly, from calm; plain^/, 
from plain ; etc. 

Remark. — A great number of paronymous words may be 
derived from a single word -form. 

Example. — Observe: observer, observed, observm^r, observ- 
ances observation, observetfor?/, etc. 



exercises. 

Illustrate the various kinds of Paronymous Derivation with 
two words each. 



ETYMOLOGY. — DEKI VATION. 



33 



II. Historical Derivation. 

43. The foreign sources of the English language are 
of several kinds : 

1. The first and most important of the foreign sources of 
the English language is Anglo-Saxon. The following is a list 
of English words, with the Anglo-Saxon words from which 
they are derived : * 



English. 


Anglo-Saxon. 


English. 


Anglo-Saxon. 


Afraid, 


Afered. 


Land, 


Land. 


Ask, 


Axian. 


Limb, 


Lim. 


Blood, 


B16d. 


Many, 


Msenig. 


Book, 


Boc. 


Moon, 


Mona. 


Cold, 


Ceald. 


Mother, 


Moder. 


Daughter, 


Dohtor. 


Name, 


Nama. 


Day, 


Dseg. 


Nine, 


Nigon. 


Deep, 


Deop. 


Ox, 


Oxa. 


Ear, 


Eare. 


Penny, 


Penig. 


Earth, 


Eard. 


Best, 


Bsest. 


Eye, 


Eage. 


Seven, 


Seofon. 


Father, 


Feeder. 


Stone, 


Stan. 


Friend, 


Freond. 


Tame, 


Tarn. 


Ghost, 


Gast. 


Ten, 


Tyn. 


Goat, 


Gat. 


Town, 


Tun. 


Gospel, 


Godspel. 


Twelve, 


Twelf. 


Hare, 


Hara. 


Under, 


Under. 


Horse, 


Hors. 


Us, 


Usic. 


Hound, 


Hund. 


Water, 


Wseter. 


i, 


Ic. 


Wife, 


Wif. 


Island, 


Igland. 


Worm, 


Wyrm. 



♦These lists of derivatives are inserted merely to classify the sources of the 
English language and to illustrate some of the principles of derivation. The stu- 
dent who desires to study the suhject further will do well to procure some hrief 
and comprehensive manual of historical Etymology, such as Bigsby's First 
Lessons in Philology. It is not expected that these lists shall he committed by 
the student; but it is better that he should study them sufficiently to acquire 
a taste for such inquiries. 



34 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. The following is a list of English words derived from 
Latin- The words in Italics come into English through some 
form of French — generally Norman French, or Old French: 



English. 


LiAT. or Nor. Fr. 


English. 


L.AT. on Nor. Fr. 


Adduce, 


Adducere. 


Liberty, 


Libertas. 


A/frm 


Affrai. 


Master, 


Maistre. 


Animal, 


Animal. 


Merchant, 


Marchand. 


Beauty, 


Beaulte. 


Nation, 


Natio. 


Cellar, 


Cellarium. 


Number, 


Numbre. 


Chamber, 


Cambre. 


Order, 


Ordo. 


Declare, 


Declarare. 


Ostrich, 


Ostruche. 


Doctrine, 


Doctrina. 


Parent, 


Parens. 


Ease, 


Easez. 


Pleasure, 


Plaisir. 


Essay, 


Essoyer. 


Postscript, 


Postscriptum 


Fact, 


Factum. 


Question, 


Questio. 


Feast, 


Feast. 


Pose, 


Rosa. 


Fortune, 


Fortuna. 


Savage, 


Savaige. 


Glory, 


Gloria. 


Sentence, 


Sententia. 


Herald, 


Herald. 


Sign, 


Signum. 


Ignorant, 


Ignorans. 


Taste, 


Taster. 


Jewel, 


Jouel. 


Use, 


Usus. 


Just, 


Justus. 


Vacuum, 


Vacuum. 


Kercheif, 


Couvrechief. 


Valet, 


Vallet. 


Latitude, 


Latitudo. 


Vulture, 


Vultur. 



3. The following is a brief list of English words derived 
from the Greek language: 



English. 

Automaton, 

Baptism, 

Drama, 

Echo, 

Geography, 

History, 

Lexicon. 



Greek. 

Automaton. 
Baptisma. 
Drama. 
? Echo. 
Gcographia. 
Historia. 
Lexicon. 



English. 
Martyr, 
Organ, 
Rhinoceros, 
Skeleton, 
Stratagem, 
Theater, 
Tyrant, 



Greek. 

Martyr. 
'Organon. 
Rhinoceros. 
Skeleton. 
Strategema. 
Theatron. 
T^rannos. 



ETYMOLOGY.— DERIVATION. 



35 



4. The following are examples of English words derived 
directly from Modern French: 



English. 


Mod. French. 


English. 


Mod. French. 


Bagatelle, 


Bagatelle. 


Menagerie, 


Menagerie. 


Beau, 


Beau. 


Mirage, 


Mirage. 


Depot, 


Depot. 


Reverie, 


Reverie. 


Facade, 


Facade. 


Route, 


Route. 



5. The musical terms used in the English language are 
nearly all derived from Italian. 

Examples. — Adagio, allegro, arpeggio, forte, piano, etc. 
Also the words banditti, cicerone, lazzarone, virtuoso, etc. 

6. A few English words are derived from the languages of 
Spain and Portugal. 

Examples. — Banana, bandana, bonanza, canon, condor, 
donna, hidalgo, senor, senora, tornado, etc. 

7. The languages of Asia are also represented by an occa- 
sional word in English. 

Examples. — The Arabic words admiral, assassin, algebra, 
alcohol, etc. ; the Turkish words bashaw, cimeter, coffee, etc. ; the 
Persian words caravan, divan, turban, etc. ; the Hindu words 
calico, lac, etc. ; the Chinese words bohea, nankeen, tea, etc. 

8. A great many geographical names in English are derived 
from the languages of the North American Indians. 

Examples. — Alleghanies, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Mus- 
kingum, Ohio, Tennessee, etc. 

9. Some words other than names of places are also derived 
from the Indian languages: 



English Words. Indian Words. 

Moccasin, Makisin. 

Squaw, Squa. 

Tomahawk, Tomehagen. 



English Words. Indian Words. 

Totem, Totem. 

Wampum, Wampum. 

Wigwam, Wekouomut. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



SECTION VI. — CLASSIFICATION. 

44. Definition. — Classification is that branch of 
Etymology which treats of the arrangement of words 
into groups according to their offices. 

Extracts. — 1. Tlie sun is the source of all terrestrial power. His 
warmth keeps the deep sea liquid, and the atmosphere a gas. 
He quietly lifts the rivers and the glaciers up the mountains; 
and thus the cataract and the avalanche shoot down with an 
energy derived immediately from him. Thunder and lightning 
are his transmitted strength. He blows the trumpet, he urges 
the projectile, he bursts the bomb. He rears the whole vege- 
table world, and through it the animal. The lilies of the field 
are his workmanship, the verdure of the meadows, and the cat- 
tle upon a thousand hills. — Tyndall. 

2. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro, 

And gathering tears and tremblings of distress ; 
And cheeks all pale which but an hour ago 

Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness. — Byron. 

3. O hark! O hear! how thin and clear, 

And thinner, clearer, farther going! 
O sweet and far, from cliff and scar, 

The horns of Elfland faintly blowing.— Tennyson. 

45. An examination of the words which compose 
these extracts will show — 

1. That many of them are the names of things. 
Examples. — The words "sun," "source," "power," "sea," 

"gas," "trumpet," "bomb,"* etc. 

Words which are the names of things are called Nouns. 

2. In order to avoid unpleasant repetitions, nouns are some- 
times omitted and other words put in their place. 



*Let the student, under the direction of the teacher, gD through the extracts 
carefully and point out every word ichich is the name of any thing. And so of 
each of the other parts of speech. 



ETYMOLOGY. — CLASSIFICATION. 37 

Examples. — The word "his" (first line; is used instead of 
the word sun's; the word "he" is used instead of the word 
sun's; the word "it" (eighth line) is used instead of the 
word world; etc. 

Those words which are put in the place of omitted nouns 
are called Pronouns. 

3. A third class of words are joined to nouns in order to 
describe or limit their meanings. 

Examples. — The word "all" (first line) limits the mean- 
ing of the word Cl power ;" the word M terrestrial " describes the 
meaning of the word "power;" 'the word "deep" describes 
the meaning of the word "sea ;" the word "the" limits the 
meaning of the word "atmosphere;" etc. 

"Words which describe or limit the meanings of nouns are 
called Adjectives. 

4. A large number of words are used to assert something of 
other words. 

Examples. — The word "keeps" (second line) asserts some- 
thing of the word " warmth ;" " lifts" asserts something of the 
word " he ;" " shoot " asserts something of " cataract " and " av- 
alanche;" "blows" asserts something of the word "he;" etc. 

Words which are used to assert something of other words 
are called Verbs. 

5. Certain words are used to limit the meanings of verbs. 

Examples. — " Quietly" (third line) limits the meaning of the 
verb " lifts ;" " down " limits the meaning of the verb " shoot ;" 
" faintly " (third extract) limits the meaning of " blowing ;" etc. 

Words which limit the meanings of verbs are called Adverbs. 

6. Certain words show the relation of nouns or pronouns to 
other words. 

Examples. — The word "of" (first line) shows the relation 
of the noun " source " to the noun " power ;" the word " with " 



38 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

shows the relation of the verb " shoot " to the noun " energy ;?' 
the word "from" shows the relation of the pronoun "him" 
to the verb "derived;' 7 etc. 

Words used to show the relation of nouns or pronouns to» 
other words are called Prepositions. 

7. A seventh class of words are used to connect words or 
parts of sentences. 

Examples.— The word "and" (third line) connects the 
nouns "rivers" and "glaciers;" the word "and" (second ex- 
tract) connects the two adverbs "then" and "there;" etc. 

Words used to connect words and parts of sentences are 
called Conjunctions. 

8. Lastly, a class of words will be found which are used to 
express simple emotions of the speaker or writer. 

Examples. — The word " ah " (second extract) and the word 
"O" (third extract) are used to express simple emotions of 
the writer. 

Words used to express simple emotions of the writer or 
speaker are called Interjections. 

46. It will thus be seen that the words of the English 
language are composed of eight classes, called the Parts 
of Speech. They are : 

1. Nouns; 5. Adverbs; 

2. Pronouns; 6. Prepositions; 

3. Adjectives; 7. Conjunctions; 

4. Verbs; 8. Interjections. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Classify all the words of the Extracts on page 32. fi> 

2. Write five sentences, underscoring the Nouns ; five, un- 
derscoring the Adjectives ; and so of the other Parts of Speech. 



ETYMOLOGY. —INFLECTION. 39 



SECTION VI.— INFLECTION. 

47. Definition. — Inflection is that branch of Ety- 
mology which treats of the forms of words and the 
changes tohich they undergo in sentences. 

I. CASE- FORMS. 

48. The relation of a noun (or pronoun) in a sen- 
tence, generally expressed by some change in the form 
of the word, is called its Case. 

1. The first and simplest form of the noun (or pronoun) 
is called the Nominative Case. It is that form of the noun 
(or pronoun) of which something is said. 

Examples. — 1. Fishes swim in the lake. 

2. He has returned from market. 

Here the italicized words are in the nominative case. 

II. The second form of the noun (or pronoun) is that which 
denotes possession or ownership. This form of a noun (or pro- 
noun) is called the Possessive Case. 

Examples. — 1. The boy's pony is playful. 
2. The girls have learned their lesson. 

Here the italicized words are in the possessive case. 

III. Nouns ( or pronouns ) which are the objects of the ac- 
tions expressed hy verbs, or of the relations expressed by prep- 
ositions are in the Objective Case. 

Remark I. — Nouns in the objective case have the form of 
the same nouns in the nominative case. 

Example. — The boys shouted to the other boys to come. 

Here the second word "boys/ 7 in the objective case, has the 
same form as the first word "boys," in the nominative case. 



40 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Remark 2,— The pronouns have a different word-form to 
express the objective case. 

Example. — The traveler went wherever he pleased, and 
the guide went with him. 

Here the pronoun "he" is in the nominative case; and 
"him," standing for the same noun, is in the objective case. 

EXAMPLES OF CASE- FORMS IN NOUNS. 

1. The horse has broken his bridle. (Norn, case.) 

2. The horse's bridle is broken. (Poss. case.) 

3. The boy caught the horse in the field. (Obj. case.) 

4. The soldiers have returned from war. (Norn, case.) 

5. The soldiers' swords are thrown into a heap. (Poss. case.) 

6. The people welcome the soldiers home. (Obj. case.) 

EXAMPLES OF CASE -FORMS IN PRONOUNS. 

1. When the hero dies, he is remembered. (Norn, case.) 

2. His memory is cherished. (Poss. case.) 

3. We bury him with honor. (Obj. case.) 

4. If men would prosper, they must toil. (Nom. case.) 

5. True men are trusted by their countrymen. (Poss. case.) 

6. The evil that men do, lives after them. (Obj. case.) 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five sentences illustrating the Case-forms of Nouns. 

2. Write five sentences illustrating the Case-forms of Pro- 
nouns. 

II. NUMBER- FORMS. 

49. A further examination of nouns (and pronouns) 
will show that they have two forms to denote whether 
one thing is signified, or more than one. 



ETYMOLOGY. —INFLECTION. 41 

50. That variation in the forms of nouns (and pro- 
nouns) which denotes whether one or more things are 
signified/ is called Number. 

1. That form of a noun (or pronoun) which denotes that one 
thing is signified is called the Singular Number. 

2. That form of a noun (or pronoun) which denotes that 
more than one thing is signified is called the Plural Number. 

Remark. — The same law holds true of pronouns and of nouns. 

EXAMPLES OF NUMBER -FORMS IN NOUNS. 

1. The tree grew by the broken wall, (Nouns in sing, num.) 

2. The trees grew by the broken walls, (Nouns in plur. num. ) 

3. A true man loves his fellow man. (Nouns in sing, num.) 

4. The star of evening is caUed Venus. (Nouns in sing, num ) 

5. The stars glitter in the skies. (Nouns in plur. num.) 

6. The skies are overcast with clouds. (Nouns in plur. num.) 

EXAMPLES OF NUMBER -FORMS IN PRONOUNS. 

1. The captain led his soldiers to the charge: he survived, 
but they fell in battle. (-He, sing, num.; they, plur. num.) 

2. Madame Roland was executed by the French Jacobins: 
her memory is cherished; theirs, detested: she was a heroine; 
they were butchers. [She and her 1 sing. num. ; they and theirs, 
plur. num.) 

3. We honor him who defends the truth. {Him, sing, num.) 

4. We honor them who fight for freedom. ( Them, plur. num.) 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five sentences illustrating the Number-forms of 
Nouns. 

2. Write five sentences illustrating the Number-forms of 
Pronouns. 

4 



42 



ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 



III. GENDER-FORMS. 

51. Some English nouns and most of the pronouns 
undergo a change in form in order to distinguish the 
sex of the object signified. 

52. That variation in the form of nouns (and pro- 
nouns) which is used to distinguish the sex of the objects 
signified, is called Gender. 

I. That form of a noun (or pronoun) which is used to dis- 
tinguish the male sex is called the Masculine Gender. 

Example. — The man and the boy came together. 

Here "man" and "hoy" are of the masculine gender. 

II. That form of a noun (or pronoun) which is used to dis- 
tinguish the female sex is called the Feminine Gender. 

Example. — The lady and her daughter sat in the porch. 

Here "lady" and "daughter" are of the feminine gender. 

EXAMPLES OF GENDER -FORMS IN NOUNS. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Colt, 


Filly. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Count, 


Countess. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Duke, 


Duchess. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Emperor, 


Empress, 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Prince, 


Princess. 


God, 


Goddess. 


Son, 


Daughter. 


Goose, 


Gander. 


Sultan, 


Sultana. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Widower, 


Widow. 



ETYMOLOGY. — INFLECTION. 43 

Remark. — Nouns which are the names of objects which have 
no sex, and nouns which are the names of objects having sex 
but without discrimination of the sex, have no gender-forms in 
English. 

Examples. — 1. The tree has trunk, branches, and leaves. 

Here "tree," "trunk," "branches," and "leaves," being the 
the names of things without sex, have no gender-forms. 

2„ The birds and bees were busy. 

Here " birds " and "bees," being the names of things with sex, 
but without discrimination of the sex, have no gender-forms. 

53. Pronouns have an additional form to distinguish 
objects having no sex. 

Examples. — 1. The rose has lost its fragrance. 
2. The toy is broken ; it can not be restored. 

Here "its" and "it" denote objects without sex. 

EXAMPLES OF GENDER -FORMS IN PRONOUNS. 

The lady and the gentleman went to the piano; she sang 
the song, while he turned the leaves of the music as it lay in 
its place before her. She asked him to join in the chorus, but 
his voice failed him, and the chorus went unsung. 

Here the words referring to "lady" are "she" and "her;" 
those referring to "gentleman" are "he," "his," and "him; " 
and those referring to "music" are "it" and "its." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five sentences illustrating the Gender-forms of 
Nouns. 

2. Write five sentences illustrating the Gender-forms of 
Pronouns. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



IV. PERSON -FORMS. 

54. By examining the English pronouns it will be 
found that they stand sometimes for the person speak- 
ing, sometimes for the person spoken to, and sometimes 
for the person (or thing) spoken of. 

Examples.— 1. J do remember me that in my youth 

/stood within the Coliseum's walls. — Byron. 

2. And, Douglas, more I tell thee here, 

Even in thy pitch of pride, 
Here in thy hold, thy vassals near, 

I tell thee, thon'rt defied! — Scott. 

3. In youth he and she were school-mates. Now, though 
they are old, the memory of their friendship lingers with them. 

In example 1, the pronouns "I," "my," and "me" stand 
for the person speaking; in example 2, the pronouns "thou," 
'"thy," and "thee," stand for the person spoken to; and in ex- 
ample 3, the pronouns "he," "she," "they," "their," and 
"them" stand for the persons spoken of. 

55. These variations in the forms of the pronouns are 
used to denote the grammatical property called Person. 

Special Note. — Nouns have no variation in form to denote changes 
of person. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Write five sentences containing Pronouns of the First 
person. 

2. Write five sentences containing Pronouns of the Second 
person. 

3. Write five sentences containing Pronouns of the Third 
person. 



ETYMOLOGY. — INFLECTION. 45 

V. COMPAMSOW-FORMS. 

5G. English adjectives sometimes denote qualities in 
an absolute sense or degree, sometimes in a comparative 
sense or degree, and sometimes in the highest or lowest 
sense or degree. Each of these senses or degrees has a 
form of the adjective peculiar to itself. 

Examples. — 1. The tree by the orchard-fence is tall; the 
maple by the spring is taller; and the poplar is tallest. 

2. Wealth is good, but knowledge is better. 

3 Socrates was the wisest of the Greek philosophers. 

In these examples the adjectives "tall" and "good" express 
qualities in an absolute sense; "taller" and "better," in a 
comparative sense; and "tallest" and "wisest," in the highest 
sense. 

57. These variations in the forms of adjectives are 
called Comparison. 

Remark. — The comparison of adverbs (see page 179) is ef- 
fected in precisely the same manner as the comparison of 
adjectives, 

ExampleSo — 1. The winds blew loud and louder still. 
2o The swallow flies higher than the sparrow. 

3. They who live best live longest. 



EXERCISES. 

1. "Write three sentences containing Adjectives which de- 
note qualities in an Absolute sense. 

2. Write the same sentences, changing the Adjectives so 
as to express the Comparative sense. 

3. Write three sentences containing Adjectives which ex- 
press qualities in the Highest or Lowest sense. 



46 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



TI. TERB- FORMS; PERSOX. 

58. English verbs have a change of form to express 
an agreement with the pronouns (or nouns) of which 
they affirm something, 

Exampl.es. — 1. I know not when the train depart -s. 

2. Thou know -est not the meaning of the things thou see-st. 

3. He welcome -s death who hope-s for nothing. 

In example 1, the word "know" is the simplest form of 
the verb. That form is said to be of the first person, agreeing 
with the pronoun "I," which is of the first person. The verb 
"departs" is formed by adding s to the simple form of the 
verb depart ; and "departs" is said to be of the third person, 
agreeing with the noun "train," which is of the third person. 

In example 2, the verb "knowest" is formed by adding est 
to the verb know. "Knowest" is said to be of the second per- 
son, to agree in person with the pronoun "thou," of which it 
affirms something. The same is true of the verb "seest." 

In example 3, the verbs "welcomes" and "hopes" are 
formed just as the verb "departs," in example 1, and are of 
the third person. 

59. These changes in the forms of the verbs, to ex- 
press agreement with the nouns (or pronouns) of which 
they affirm something, constitute the Person of the Verb. 



exercises. 

1. Write three sentences containing Verbs in the First 
person. 

2. Write the same sentences, changing the subjects so as 
to put the Verbs in the Second person. 

3. Write three sentences containing Verbs in the Third 
person. 



ETYMOLOGY. — INFLECTION. 47 

VII. VERB- FORMS: TEXSE. 

60. A further examination of verbs will show that 
they undergo a change in form to denote the time of the 
action which they express. 

Examples. — 1. The clerk writes the record in a book. 

2. David Hume wrote the History of England. 

3. The student is ivriting an essay. 

4. The young man has written a letter to his parents. 

In examples 1 and 3, the action is represented as happen- 
ing in present time. In examples 2 and 4, the action is rep- 
resented as happening in past time. From which we see — 

1. That there are two forms of the verb used to denote ac- 
tions happening in present time ; and, 

2. That there are also two forms of the verb to denote ac- 
tions happening in past time. 

61. The variations in form which verbs undergo in 
order to express the time of the action is called Tense. 

EXAMPLES OF THE TENSE -FOK3IS OF VERBS. 

1. Write, wrote, writing, written. 

2. Fall, fell, falling, fallen. 

3. See, saw, seeing, seen. 

Remark. — Many verbs have fewer than four tense-forms. 

Examples.— 1. Sell, sold, selling, sold. 

2. Trade, traded, trading, traded. 

3. Cut, cut, cutting, cut. 

EXERCISES. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the Tense-forms of Verbs. 



48 ENGLISH GKAMMAR 



CHAPTER III. 

THE NOUN. 
I. CLASSIFICATION, 

1. Definition. — A Noun is the name of any thing. 

2. Principle. — Whatever is either the subject or the 
object of our thought is a Noun. 

Examples. — 1. The steamboat was invented by Fulton. 

2. The highway is paved with stone. 

3. The condor inhabits the Andes. 

4. The ivillow grows by the spring. 

In these examples the words " steamboat," " highway," 
"condor," and "willow" are the things thought about; that 
is, our thought proceeds from them as subjects. All subjects 
of thought are nouns. 

5. We saw a ship in the harbor. 

6. Behold the sun, the blazing orb of day ! 

7. Who has the courage to climb Mont Blanc f 

In these examples the words "ship," "sun," "orb," "cour- 
age," and "Mont Blanc" are the objects of our thought; that 
is, they are the things toward which our thinking is directed. 
All such objects of thought are nouns. 

Remark. — In example 1, the noun "Fulton;" in example 2, 
the noun "stone;" in example 3, the noun "spring," and in 
example 5, the noun "harbor," are indirect objects of thought. 

3. By examining the things we think about, we shall 
find — 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE NOUN: CLASSIFICATION. 49 

1. That some of them are general ideas, having general 
names ; 

2. That some of them are objects arranged in classes, a 
name being given to the whole class; and 7 

3. That some of them are things not arranged in classes, a 
special name being given to each particular thing. 

4. General names and the names of classes of things 
are called Common Nouns. 

5. Special and particular names are called Proper 
Nouns. 

Examples. — 1, Much study is required to gain a correct 
knowledge of grammar. 

2. The tree in the field has been blown down by the wind. 

3. Under the cold sky of winter the traveler toiled on through 
the snow. 

4. Suns, moons, and stars, and clouds his sisters were; 
Rocks, mountains, meteors, seas, and winds, and storms, 
His brothers. 

In example 1, the italicized words are the names of general 
ideas; and in examples 2, 3, and 4, the italicized words are 
the names of classes of things; that is, each of the nouns is 
the name of many objects of the same sort. All such names 
are Common Nouns. 

5. Philadelphia, on the Delaware, was founded by William 
Penn in 1683. 

6. America was discovered by the Norsemen, five centuries 
before Columbus. 

7. The Romans, the Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans, 
successively invaded England. 

8. Those Frenchmen who, in the South of France, aban- 
doned the Pope and the Catholic Church, to follow the doc- 
trines of the Reformation, are called Huguenots. 

In these examples all the nouns begun with capital letters are 
5 



50 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

the names of particular objects. Those objects have no other 
things of the same sort classified with them. They stand alone 
in thought; and the special names given to them are called 
Proper Nouns. 

DEFINITIONS. 

1. A Common Noun is a general name, or the name of a 
class of things. 

2. A Proper Noun is the name of some particular thing. 

Xote 1.— The common noun, as a class name, belongs alike to each 
of many things. 

Itfote 2. — The proper noun is a special name, belonging to some 
particular thing or things, and not to any class of things. 

6. An examination of common nouns will show — 

1. That many of them denote the thing spoken of without 
reference to any other thing. 

Examples.— Hou^e, brook, sky, trumpet, etc. 

Here the real and independent existence of the things re- 
ferred to, is denoted by the nouns which are the names of 
the things. Such nouns are called Concrete Nouns. 

2. Certain other nouns denote that the things referred to 
are only the qualities or attributes of some other things. 

Examples. — Wisdom, brightness, goodness, truth, etc. 

Here the words "wisdom," "brightness," etc., imply that 
something is wise, bright, good, true, etc.; and from those 
things that are wise, bright, good, and true, the qualities of 
wisdom, brightness, goodness, and truth are taken. 

The qualities taken from things depend upon those things 
for existence; and the names given to such qualities or attri- 
butes of things, are called Abstract Nouns. 

Remark. — The process of taking a quality from any thing 
in which it inheres, is called Abstraction. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: CLASSIFICATION. 51 

3. Certain nouns are the names of groups or collections of 
objects taken together. 

Examples. — Flock, army, assembly, people, throng, host, 
etc. Such nouns are called Collective Nouns. 

4. Certain other nouns are the names of continuous actions. 
Examples. — Walking, flying, fishing, swimming, etc. Such 

nouns are called Participial Nouns.* 

5. Another class of nouns is produced by using the infini- 
tives t of verbs as the subjects or objects of thought. 

Examples. — To sleep is pleasant. To read is profitable. 
Men dread to die. Strive to win the race. 

Here "to sleep" and "to read" are the subjects, and "to 
die" and "to win," the objects of thought. They are, there- 
fore, nouns, and are called Verbal Nouns. 

7. A few proper nouns have, in a measure, lost their 
special signification, and to that extent have become 
common nouns. 

Examples. — 1. The gorgons, chimeras, and centaurs are 
no longer feared. 

Here the process is complete. The nouns "gorgons," "chi- 
meras," and "centaurs," which were once the special names 
of fabulous monsters, have lost their particular reference in a 
general sense. They are, therefore, common nouns. 

2. The Alexanders, Hannibals, Csesars, and Napoleons of 
the world have been at once the enemies and the benefac- 
tors of mankind. 

Here the reference to particular men is partly lost, though 
the nouns still retain something of their special character. 
It is better to regard such nouns as " Proper Nouns becoming 
Common. 1 ' 1 



*For the meaning of "participial," see page 130 
fFor the meaning of "infinitive," see page 130 



52 



ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



8. Scheme of the Noun:* 



I. Common— 

Divided into : 

The Noun — 

Divided into : 



II. Proper— 

Divided into : 



1. Concrete: 

Tree, river, mountain. 

2. Abstract: 

Length, truth, kindness. 

3. Collective: 

Class, flock, assembly. 

4. Participial: 

Running, flying, hunting. 

5. Verbal: 

To think, to trust, to study. 

1. Strictly Proper: 

Sumner, Baltimore, Rome. 

2. Becoming Common : 

The Bourbons, the Adamses, the Clays. 



EXERCISES. 

I. Classify the following Nouns: 

Ant, barber, battle, cane, Cromwell, danger, daughter, easel, 
Essex, fame, fortune, gain, gaming, Harold, the Hancocks, the 
Haynes, hunting, January, kennel, lamb, location, music, noise, 
path, proverb, rain, rose, supper, tree, union, Union, Warren, 
water. 

II. 1. Write ten sentences containing Common Nouns. 

2. Write ten sentences containing Proper Nouns. 

3. Write sentences illustrating Concrete, Abstract, Collect- 
ive, Participial, and Verbal Nouns. 

4. Write two sentences containing Proper Nouns becoming 
Common. 

5. Write two sentences containing Proper Nouns that have 
become Common. 



*Let all schemes be written on the blackboard, commented on, and carefully 
reviewed. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE NOUN: GENDER. 53 

II. PROPERTIES. 

9. Principle. — Certain things are essential to the nat- 
ure of a noun. 

1. Every noun must designate something with or without sex. 

2. Every noun must signify one thing or more than one. 

3. Every noun must denote- 

(1.) The speaker; 

(2.) The person spoken to; or, 

(3.) The person (or thing) spoken of. 

4. Every noun must denote — , . 

(1.) The subject of some action or state; 

(2.) The object of some action or relation; or, 

(3.) The possessor of something. 

Whatever is essential to the nature of the noun is called a 
Property of the Noun. 

10. The Properties of Nouns are four in number: 
Gender, Number, Person, and Case. Every noun must 
be considered with respect to these four properties. 

SECTIOX I.-OENDER. 

11. Definition. — Gender in Grammar is a property 
of nouns, denoting the sex of the object signified. 

Remark. — Sometimes the distinctions of gender are marked 
in the form of the tuord; but in other cases they are not so 
denoted. 

12. A noun, considered with respect to gender, may 
denote — 

1. A being of the male sex; 



54 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

2. A being of the female sex; 

3. A being with sex, but without discrimination of that sex; 

4. A thing with no sex. 

Hence we have in Grammar four genders: 

1. The Masculine Gender: including the names of all male 
beings; as, boy, man, king, horse, lion, etc. 

2. The Feminine Gender: including the names of all female 
beings ; as, girl, woman, queen, lioness, mermaid, etc. 

3. Undetermined Gender: * including the names of all beings 
which have sex, but no discrimination of the sex; as bird, 
fish, rabbit, seal, sheep, elephant, etc. 

4. No Gender : t including the names of all things that have 
no sex; as, hill, sky, prairie, truth, legislation, etc. 

13. The masculine and feminine genders are discrim- 
inated from each other in one of three ways : 

1. By the use of distinct words; 

2. By a difference in the termination of the words; 

3. By different prefixes or suffixes to a common word. 



*The usual name of this distinction in the grammar of the noun is " Common 
Gender," but the expression is entirely erroneous, and ought to be rejected. In 
the English language gender is merely the verbal expression of sex. There 
neither is nor can be such a thing as common gender. All sex is either male or 
female. A common sex is something quite impossible. The true distinction in 
the present case, is that the gender is undetermined— not common. The expres- 
sion "undetermined gender" is definitive and clear, but "common gender" is 
unthinkable and absurd. Observe, moreover, that we should not describe a given 
noun as being of the undetermined gender, but simply as of undetermined gender. 

fThe usual name of this distinction of the noun is Neuter Gender; but that 
expression is almost as objectionable as Common Gender applied to the third dis- 
tinction. " Neuter Gender " means merely neither gender ; and although, if a noun 
be of neither gender, it may be inferred that it is of no gender, yet it is prefera- 
ble to express the distinct negation at once, and not leave the student to arrive 
at the true idea by an inference. The noun tree should be described simply as be- 
ing of No Gender. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE NOUN: GENDEE. 



55 



Gender Table. — First Method. 



Masculine. 

Bachelor, 

Beau, 

Boy, 

Brother, 

Buck, 

Bullock, 

Cock, 

Drake, 

Father, 

Gander, 

Gentleman, 

Hart, 

Horse, 



Femixine. 

Maid. 

BeUe. 

Girl. 

Sister. 

Doe. 

Heifer. 

Hen. 

Duck. 

Mother. 

Goose. 

Lady. 

Boe. 

Mare. 



Masculine. 

Husband, 
Lad, 
Man, 
Master, 
Nephew, 
Papa, 
Bam, 
Sir, 
Son, 
Stag, 
Uncle, 
Wizard, 
Etc., etc, 



Feminine. 

Wife. 
Lass. 
Woman. 
Mistress. 
Niece. 
Mamma, 
Ewe. 
Madam, 
Daughter. 
Hind. 
Aunt. 
Witch. 
, etc. 



Gender Table. — Second Method. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Hunter, 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Idolater, 


Author, 


Authoress. 


Jew, 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Lion, 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 


Marquis, 


Count, 


Countess. 


Monitor, 


Czar, 


Czarina. 


Negro, 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


Poet, 


Don, 


Donna. 


Priest, 


Duke, 


Duchess. 


Prince,. 


Emperor, 


Empress. 


Prophet, 


Executor, 


Executrix. 


Shepherd, 


Giant, 


Giantess. 


.Sultan, 


God, 


Goddess. + 


Tiger, 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Viscount, 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Widower, 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Etc., etc 



Feminine. 

Huntress. 
Idolatress. 
Jewess. 
Lioness. 
Marchioness. 
Monitress. 
Negress. 
Poetess. 
Priestess. 
Princess. 
Prophetess. 
Shepherdess. 
Sultana. 
Tigress. 
Viscountess. 
Widow. 
., etc. 



56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Gender Table.— Third Method. 



Masculine. 



Feminine. 



Bridegroom, Bride. 

Gentleman, Gentlewoman. 

Zfe-bear, She-bear. 

He-goat, She-goat. 

Landlord*, Land^ac^/. 



Masculine. Feminine, 

Male, .Female, 

j^farckind, Humankind. 

-Mem-servant, ilfaid-servant. 
School-master, &ohoo\-mistress. 
Etc., etc., etc. 



Remark I. — A number of words occurring in the second 
table, and others of the same sort, show a tendency in pres- 
ent usage to drop the distinctive form for the feminine, and 
to use the masculine form for both genders. Such words as 
author, editor, heir, hunter, monitor, poet, etc., unless there 
is a distinct reference to the sex, are now properly applied to 
women. The tendency is to reject entirely the forms author- 
ess, editress, monitress, poetess, etc. 

Remark 2. — It will be seen that in the third table the words 
expressing the two genders have always a certain part in com- 
mon, and that the variable part is sometimes a prefix and some- 
times a suffix. 

Remark 3.— Nouns of undetermined gender and no gender have 
no distinctive forms by which they may be known. The mean- 
ing of all such words determines their classification as to gender. 

Remark 4. — When nouns of no gender are personified — that 
is, when they are spoken of as persons — they take the gender 
of the persons to whom they are likened. 

Examples. — 1. The fairy Moon, queen of the night, dis- 
penses her silver beams. 

Here the noun is personified — spoken of as a queen — and 
the gender isTeminine. 

2. The mighty Sun, king of the heavens, drives his chariot 
through the sky. 

Here the sun is personified — spoken of as a king — and the 
gender is masculine. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE NOUN: NUMBER. 57 

EXERCISES. 

L State the gender of the following Nouns: 

Apple, author, book, Boston, camel, cat, dog, editor, ele- 
phant, fish, fox, goose, hat, husband, image, John, lady, lass, 
madam, merchant, nobleman, opinion, person, quince, rat, 
reynard, senator, smith, table, turtle, urn, veteran, widow, 
w T ife, witch, wolf. 

II. 1. Write five sentences containing Nouns of the Mascu- 
line Gender. 

2. Write five sentences containing Nouns of the Feminine 
Gender. 

3. Write five sentences containing Nouns of Undetermined 
Gender. 

4. Write five sentences containing Nouns of No Gender. 



SECTION II. — NUxUBER. 

14. Definition. — Number is a property of nouns, 
denoting whether one thing or more than one thing is 
signified. 

1. That form of the noun which denotes that one thing is 
meant, is called the Singular Number. i 

2. That form of the noun which denotes that more than 
one thing is meant, is called the Plural Number. 

15. Number is generally denoted by some variation 
in the form of the word; as, tree, trees; box, boxes; 
leaf, \eaves ; ox, ox.en ; etc. 

Remark. — Sometimes there is no change in the form of the 
word itself, the same form of the noun being used to denote 
both singular and plural; as, deer, deer; heathen, heathen; 
quail, quail; salmon, salmon; series, series; species, species; 
vermin, vermin; etc. 



58 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



16. The plurals of English nouns are formed in one 
of several ways : 

1. By affixing s or es to the singular ; as, dew, dews ; storm, 
storms; fox, foxes; grass, grasses; etc. This is the general 
method of forming plurals. 

2. By affixing s or es to the singular, with some other change 
in the form of the word; as, calf, calves; life, lives; fly, flies; 
lady, ladies; story, stories; etc. 

3. By affixing n or en to the singular ; as, ox, oxen ; child, 
child(r)en; hose, hosen; etc. 

4. By a change in the vowels of the noun ; as, man, men ; 
woman, women ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; etc. Sometimes both 
the vowels and the consonants are changed; as, mouse, mice; 
cow, kine; etc. 

Number Table. — First Method. 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Apple, 


Apples. 


Loss, 


Losses. 


Axe, 


Axes. 


Mate, 


Mates. 


Barn, 


Barns. 


Mole, 


Moles. 


Box, 


Boxes. 


Nut, 


Nuts. 


Boy, 


Boys. 


Owl, 


Owls. 


Camel, 


Camels. 


Pencil, 


Pencils. 


Cat, 


Cats. 


Pin, 


Pins. 


Day, 


Days. 


Poet, 


Poets. 


Door, 


Doors. 


Rat, 


Rats. 


Ear, 


Ears. 


Road, 


Roads. 


Field, 


Fields. 


Supper, 


Suppers, 


Fox, 


Foxes. 


Table, 


Tables. 


Goat, 


Goats. 


Toy, 


Toys. 


Hope, 


Hopes. 


Valley, 


Valleys. 


Land, 


Lands. 


Wren, 


Wrens. 


Lock, 


Locks. 


Etc., 


etc., etc. 



Remark. — A large majority of all the nouns in the English 
language fall in this table. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: NUMBER 



59 



Number Table. — Second Method. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Beef, 


Beeves. 


Loaf, 


Loaves. 


Calf, 


Calves. 


Self, 


Selves. 


Elf, 


Elves. 


Sheaf, 


Sheaves 


Half, 


Halves. 


Thief, 


Thieves. 


Knife, 


Knives. 


Wife, 


Wives. 


Leaf, 


Leaves. 


Wolf, 


Wolves. 


Life, 


Lives. 


Etc., 


etc., etc. 



Remark I. — It will be seen that the plurals in this table are 
formed by changing / or fe of the singular into v before es. 

Remark 2. — Many nouns ending with / or fe have regular 
plurals ; as, fife, fifes ; grief, griefs ; staff, staffs ; etc. 

Remark 3. — Nouns ending with y preceded by a consonant, 
might properly be inserted in the second class. The plurals 
of such nouns are formed by changing y into i before es; as, 
cry, cries ; fly, flies ; lady, ladies ; melody, melodies. 

Number Table. — Third Method. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Child, 


Child(r)en. 


Ox, 


Oxen. 


Chick, 


Chicken.* 


Shoe, 


Shoon.* 


Hose, 


Hosen.* 


Etc., 


etc., etc. 



Number Table.— Fourth Method. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


Cow, 


Kine. 


Mouse, 




Mice. 


Foot, 


Feet. 


Tooth, 




Teeth. 


Goose, 


Geese. 


Woman, 




Women 


Man, 


Men. 


Etc., 


etc 


;., etc. 


* Old plural 







60 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



17. A number of nouns form their plurals in two 

ways — thus: 

Table. 

Second Plural. 

Brethren (community). 
Clothes (garments). 
Kine (a herd). 
Dice (for gaming). 
Fish (in aggregate). 
Fowl (the species). 
Genii (spirits). 
Indices (in algebra). 
Media (things). 
Memoranda (notes). 
Pease (in aggregate). 
Pence (by value.) 
Shot (in aggregate). 
Staves (sticks.) 

Remark. — In this table it will be observed that the two 
plurals have different meanings, 

18. Another class of nouns have double plurals with 
the same meanings. Such nouns are generally from for- 
eign languages. 

Table. 



SINGULAR. 


First Plural. • 


Brother, 


Brothers (by birth), 


Cloth, 


Cloths (kinds of cloth), 


Cow, 


Cows (individuals), 


Die, 


Dies (for stamping), 


Fish, 


Fishes (individuals), 


Fowl, 


Fowls (individuals), 


Genius, 


Geniuses (men), 


Index, 


Indexes (of books), 


Medium, 


Mediums (persons), 


Memorandum 


, Memorandums (books), 


Pea, 


Peas (individuals), 


Penny, 


Pennies (by number), 


Shot, 


Shots (discharges), 


Staff, 


Staffs (military), 



Singular. 


English Plural. 


Foreign Plural, 


Bandit 


(Italian ), 


Bandits, 


Banditti. 


Cherub 


(Hebrew) , 


Cherubs, 


Cherubim. 


Dogma 


(Greek ), 


Dogmas, 


Dogmata. 


Rabbi 


(Hebrew), 


Rabbis, 


Babbins. 


Seraph 


(Hebrew), 


Seraphs. 


Seraphim. 


Virtuoso 


i (Italian ), 


Virtuosos, 


Virtuosi. 



Remark. — In using the words found in this table the English 
plural is to be preferred to the foreign. 



I 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: NUMBER 



61 



19. A few words have the foreign plural only. 
Table. 



Singular. 


PLURAL. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Arcanum, 


Arcana. 


Monsieur, 


Messieurs. 


Axis, 


Axes. 


Nebula, 


Nebulae. 


Beau, 


Beaux. 


Nucleus, 


Nuclei. 


Chrysalis, 


Chrysalides. 


Phenomenon, 


Phenomena 


Crisis, 


Crises. 


Proboscis, 


Proboscides. 


Datum, 


Data. 


Radius, 


Radii. 


Formula, 


Formulae. 


Stimulus, 


Stimuli. 


Genus, 


Genera. 


Stratum, 


Strata. 


Hypothesis, 


Hypotheses. 


Terminus, 


Termini. 


Larva, 


Larvae. 


Thesis, 


Theses. 


Madame, 


Mesdames. 


Vortex, 


Vortices. 



20. A large number of nouns have no plural. This 
is true generally of — 

1. Abstract nouns; such as decorum, harshness, kindness, 
meekness, prudence, etc. 

2. Certain products of the earth and of manufacture ; as, 
barley, cider, flax, gold, tallow, etc. Sometimes, however, 
in the language of the market-place, words of this class have 
plurals ; as, coffees, sugars, teas, wines, etc. 

21. Another group of nouns have the plural form 
and signification only ; as, annals, antipodes, archives, 
ashes, assets, bitters, compasses, forceps, goggles, goods, 
ides, nippers, nuptials, pincers, scales, snuffers, shears, 
spectacles, thanks, tongs, victuals, etc. 

22. Still another class of nouns have the plural form 
with the singular signification; as, means, molasses, news, 
odds, pains, riches, tidings, etc.; also the nouns ethics, 
mathematics, optics, physics, politics, etc. 



62 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

23. Compound nouns form their plurals in one of four 
ways: 

1. By adding s to the most important noun in the com- 
pound; as, aids -de -camp, brothers-in-law, fruit-trees, step- 
mothers, etc. 

2. By adding the suffix to the noun rather than to the ad- 
jective of the compound ; as, attorneys -general, courts -martial, 
legal -tenders, etc. 

3. By making plural both parts of the compound; as, 
Knights -Templars, men-servants, women -servants, etc. 

4. By reserving the suffix until the ivhole sense of the com- 
pound is developed; as, forget-me-nots, seek -no -furthers, etc. 

Remark I. — In the case of such words as handful, spoonful, 
etc., the correct plurals are handfuls, spoonfuls, etc. 

Remark 2. — In the case of compounds made up of a title 
and a proper name, usage is somewhat divided ; but the true 
law of the language requires that the s be affixed to the noun, 
and not to the title. The forms, Miss Browns, Miss Martins, 
Miss Smiths, etc., are correct; so, also, the two President Ad- 
amses. The forms, the Misses Brown, Misses Martin, Misses 
Smith, are incorrect, though sanctioned by respectable usage. 

Remark 3. — The plurals of proper nouns are formed by the 
addition of s or es — thus' Henry, Henrys; Jones, Joneses. 



EXERCISES. 

I. State the number of the following Nouns: 

Alms, ants, archer, beaux, brethren, brooks, cattle, camphor, 
Cincinnati, debate, dentistry, donors, effects, freightage, gate- 
ways, gentry, heathen, hops, hose, Indian, jokes, lens, measles, 
matches, memoranda, nebulae, news, nuptials, paste, phenom- 
enon, riches, spectacles, seraphim, strata, tongs, temperance, 
victuals. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: PEESON. 63 

II. 1. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Singu- 
lar Number. 

2. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Plural 
Number. 

3. W T rite two sentences illustrating each of the Four Meth- 
ods of forming the Plural Number. 



SECTION III. -PERSON. 

24. Definition. — Person in Grammar is a property 
of the noun, denoting whether it represents the person 
speaking, the person spoken to, or the person (or thing) 
spoken of. 

These three different relations give rise to the three persons 
of the noun. They are : 

1. The First Person; 

2. The Second Person ; 

3. The Third Person. 

Remark. — So far as etymology is concerned, the person of 
the noun is purely ideal. There is no inflection or change of 
any kind in the form of the word to denote the existence of 
such a property. The person of pronouns is strongly marked ; 
but so far as nouns are concerned, the property exists only in 
thought and in the relation of the words. 

25. The First Person of nouns denotes the person 
speaking. 

Examples. — 1. I, Abraham Lincoln, make this proclama- 
tion. 

2. We, the people of the United States, do adopt this con- 
stitution. 

3. They appealed to me, a pauper, for help. 

4. Wallenstein came upon us peasants with the sword. 



64 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

In the preceding examples the nouns " Abraham Lincoln," 
" people," "pauper," and " peasants" are in the first person, 
because they denote the persons speaking. 

Remark. — Nouns in the first person are always associated 
with pronouns in the first person ; and by the person of the pro- 
nouns the person of the nouns is determined. In the above 
examples the determining pronouns are "I," "we," "me," 
and "us." 

26. The Second Person of nouns denotes the person or 
personified thing spoken to. 

Examples. — 1. Give way, my boys ; let the procession pass. 

2. G King of day, that shinest in the heavens ! 

3. Thou mighty monument of the illustrious dead ! 

4. I appeal to you, men of Athens. 

In these examples the nouns "boys," "King," "monu- 
ment," and "men" are in the second person, because they 
denote the person or personified thing spoken to. 

Remark. — Nouns in the second person are generally, but 
not always, associated with certain pronouns in the second 
person. In the above examples the determining pronouns 
are "thou" and "you." 

27. The Third Person of nouns denotes the person or 
thing spoken of. 

Remark I. — All nouns not in the first or second person, are, 
of course, in the third person. 

Remark 2. — When nouns are in the third person there are 
no determining pronouns. In this case the person is absolute 
in the noun itself. 

Example. — The battle is fought and the victory won. 

Here the nouns "battle" and "victory" are in the third 
person — not from any relation to a pronoun, but simply be- 
cause they are the names of the things spoken of. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: CASE. 65 

EXERCISES. 

I. State the person of the Nouns in the following sentences : 

1. We, the Committee, beg leave to report as follows. 

2. The report is now before you, gentlemen. 

3. Mr. Speaker: I move to lay the report on the table. 

4. I appeal to all Americans, and you are Americans. 

5. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a 
history of repeated injuries and usurpations. 

II. 1. Write six sentences illustrating the Person of Nouns. 

2. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the First 
Person. 

3. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Second 
Person. 

4. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Third 
Person. 

SECTION IV. — CASE. 

28. Principle. — The form and position of a noun may 
show its relations in a sentence. 

29. That property of a noun which denotes its rela- 
tion to the other words in a sentence is called Case. 

The case of the noun is denoted either — 

1. By the form of the word; or, 

2. By the 2^ os ^ on of the word in the sentence. 

An examination of sentences will show that the noun may 
occupy one of four principal relations: 

30. The noun may be the subject of the thought ex- 
pressed in the sentence. 

Examples. — 1. The rain came down in a torrent. 
2. The sun rose at six o'clock. 
6 



66 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

3. The thermometer stood at 60°. 

In these examples the nouns "rain," "sun," and "ther- 
mometer" are the names of the things thought about, and are 
therefore called the subjects of the sentences. 

31. The noun may denote the possessor of something. 

Examples. — 1. The bird's song greets the morning. 

2. The mountain's brow is hidden in the mist. 

3. We heard the hunter 1 s rifle. 

In these examples the nouns "bird's," "mountain's," and 
"hunter's" denote the possessors of the three things, "song," 
"brow," and "rifle." 



METHODS OF FORMING THE POSSESSIVE. 

1. In the singular number add an apostrophe (') and the 
letter s to the nominative form of the noun. 

Examples. — Boy, boy's; book, book's; Ralph, Ralph's; 
garden, garden's; lynx, lynx's; tree, tree's; etc. 

2. In the plural number, when the plural ends in s, the 
possessive is formed by the addition of an apostrophe ( ' ) only. 

Examples. — Boys, boys' ; books, books' ; gardens, gardens' ; 
lynxes, lynxes' ; trees, trees' ; etc. 

3. If the nominative plural ends in some letter other than 
s, the possessive is formed as in the singular number, by the 
addition of the apostrophe (') and s. 

Examples. — Children, children's; men, men's; etc. 

Remark I. — In the case of certain nouns ending with the 
sound of s, the attempt has been made to form an abbrevi- 
ated possessive singular by adding the apostrophe only — thus: 
Augustus' supper ; conscience' sake ; Felix' opinion ; Phillips' 
oration ; etc. Such usage is a vain affectation of speech, and 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: CASE. 67 

ought to be abandoned. The true forms are these : Augustus's 
supper ; conscience's sake ; Felix's opinion ; Phillips's oration ; 
Loomis's Trigonometry; the princess's sister; Socrates's Dia- 
logues; etc. 

Remark 2. — The relation denoted by the possessive case is 
frequently expressed by the preposition of, followed by the 
noun in the objective case. 

Examples. — The speech of Sumner = Sumner's speech ; the 
father of Henry == Henry's father ; the hope of all true men — 
all true men's hope ; etc. 

Remark 3. — In forming the possessive case of compound 
or complex names the apostrophe (') and the s are affixed 
to the last word of the combination ; as, Marcus Tullius Cice- 
ro's oration; my brother-in-law's possessions; etc. 

Remark 4. — In pronouncing the possessive singular the suf- 
fix 's sometimes constitutes a syllable, and is pronounced like 
the syllable es; as, horse's, pronounced horses; marsh's, pro- 
nounced marshes; watch's, pronounced watches. In general, 
however, the suffix 's coalesces with the preceding syllable, 
merely modifying it by the addition of the sound of s sharp, 
or s = z; as, cat's, pronounced catz; garden's, pronounced gar- 
denz; man's, pronounced manz; tree's, pronounced treez; etc. 

Remark 5. — The origin of the suffix 's is this: In Anglo- 
Saxon the genitive ( = possessive ) ending was es. In the for- 
mation of the English possessive the s of the Anglo-Saxon 
genitive was retained, and the place of the omitted e was 
marked with an apostrophe ('). The Anglo-Saxon fisces, 
meaning of a fish, became fish's; mannes, meaning of a man, 
became man's; wulfes, meaning of a wolf became wolf's; 
smithes, meaning of a smith, became smith's ; etc. 

32. The noun may be the object of the action ex- 
pressed by a verb, or of the relation expressed by a 
preposition. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

Examples. — 1. We saw the general on horseback. 

2. The fishermen drew the net to the shore. 

3. The soldiers raised the old flag over the fort. 

In these examples the nouns "general," "net," and "flag," 
denote the objects of the actions expressed by the verbs "saw," 
"drew," and "raised;" and the nouns "horseback," "shore," 
and "fort," are the objects of the relations expressed by the 
prepositions "on," "to," and "over." 

33. The noun may be independent of the rest of the 
sentence. 

Examples. — 1. The master said, "Hither, Will." 

2. Soldiers, stand to your posts. 

3. "O night 

And storm, and darkness, ye are wondrous strong!" 

In these examples the nouns "Will," "soldiers," "night," 
"storm," and "darkness" are addressed. The relation be- 
tween them and the other parts of the sentences is broken, 
and the nouns thus set off are said to be independent 

4. The boy I oh, where was he? 

5. In he plunged, the daring swimmer. 

In these examples the nouns "boy" and "swimmer" are 
not necessary to the syntax of the sentences. Such superflu- 
ous words are used by a figure of speech called Pleonasm, and 
are, like nouns addressed, said to be independent. 

6. The rain having ceased, the march continued. 

7. Faith being broken, who can restore it? 

In these examples the nouns "rain" and "faith" are asso- 
ciated in construction with the participial expressions "hav- 
ing ceased" and "being broken." Nouns used in this manner 
are also said to be independent. 

Remark I. — The form of the noun independent is always 
identical with the nominative form of the same noun; and 
for this reason some grammarians have given the name of 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: DECLENSION. 69 

Nominative Absolute to the noun in independent relation. But 
an examination of pronouns will show that the case inde- 
pendent is frequently expressed by the objective form. The 
common expression "Ah, me" shows conclusively that the 
case independent is not necessarily a nominative case. 

Remark 2. — In Anglo-Saxon the case independent was the 
Dative — a case lost in English. 

34. It will thus be seen that nouns have four cases : 

1. The first denotes that the noun is the subject of the sen- 
tence, and is called the Nominative Case. 

2. The second denotes the possessor, and is called the Pos- 
sessive Case. 

3. The third denotes the object of an action expressed by 
a verb, or of the relation expressed by a preposition, and is 
called the Objective Case. 

4. The fourth denotes the independent relation of nouns 
addressed, or otherwise detached from close syntactical con- 
nection, and is called the Independent Case. 



♦ III. DECLENSION. 

35. The process of forming the different cases and 
numbers of a noun is called Declension. 

DECLENSION TABLES. 

I. COMMON NOUN — REGULAR PLURAL. 

Plubal. 



Singular. 

Nom. Book, 

Poss. Book's, 

Obj. Book, 

Ind. Book. 



Nom. Books, 

Poss. Books 7 , 

Obj. Books, 

Ind. Books. 



70 



ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



II. COMMON NOUN -PLURAL IN IES. 



Singular. 


PLURAL. 


Nom. Lady, 


Nom. 


Ladies, 


JPoss. Lady's, 


Poss. 


Ladies', 


Obj. Lady, 


Obj, 


Ladies, 


Ind. Lady. 


Ind. 


Ladies. 


III. COMMON NOUN— IRREGULAR PLURAL. 


Nom. Man, 


Nom. 


Men, 


Poss. Man's, 


Poss. 


Men's, 


Obj. Man, 


Obj. 


Men, 


Ind. Man. 


Ind. 


Men. 


IV. COMMON NOUN -IRREGULAR PLURAL. 


Nom. Mouse, 


Nom. 


Mice, 


Poss. Mouse's, 


Poss. 


Mice's, 


Obj. Mouse, 


Obj. 


Mice, 


Ind. Mouse. 


Ind. 


Mice. 


COMMON NOUN -PLURAL SAME AS I 


3INGULAI 


Nom. Sheep, 


Nom. 


Sheep, 


Poss. Sheep's, 


Poss. 


Sheep's, 


Obj Sheep, 


Obj. 


Sheep, 


Ind. Sheep. 


Ind. 


Sheep. 


COMMON NOUN ABSTRACT -PLURAL 


WANTIN 


Nom. Prudence, 
Poss. Prudence's, 
Obj. Prudence, 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 










Ind. Prudence. 


Ind. 





VII. COMMON NOUN -SINGULAR WANTING. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 
Ind. 



Nom. Scissors, 

Poss. Scissors', 

Obj. Scissors, 

Ind. Scissors. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: DECLENSION. 71 



VIII. PROPER NOUN -PLURAL WANTING. 



Singular. 

Nom. Jefferson, 

~Poss. Jefferson's, 

Obj. Jefferson, 

Ind. Jefferson. 



Plural. 

Nom. 



Obj. 
Ind. 



Remark.— Participial nouns and verbal nouns are indeclinable. 

EXERCISES. 

I. State the case of the Nouns in the following sentences, 
and in each instance give reason for the case : 

1. Brave men succeed. 

2. Study matures the mind. 

3. Lincoln was born in a rude cabin. 

4. The roar of Niagara Falls can be heard for miles. 

5. The merchant doubted the boy's honesty. 

6. An old book says: " Every man's house is his castle." 

7. Star of the mead, sweet daughter of the day, 
Whose opening flower invites the morning ray. 

8. The melancholy days have come, 

The saddest of the year, 
Of wailing winds and naked woods, 
And meadows brown and sere. — Bryant. 

II. 1. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Nomi- 
native Case. 

2. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Possessive 
Case. 

3. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Objective 
Case. 

4. Write five sentences containing Nouns in the Independ- 
ent Case. 

5. Decline the following Nouns: Man, girl, wisdom, sky, 
coffee, Savannah, Aix- la-Chapelle, Horace, tidings. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



IV. PARSING. 



36. Principle. — The words of a sentence may be de- 
scribed by giving their grammatical properties. 

37. The process of describing words in their gram- 
matical properties and relations is called Parsing. 

Remark. — As it regards the noun, parsing consists in giv- 
ing in proper order the classification, gender, number, person, 
and case of the noun; and to this must be added a rule of 
Syntax by which the government or agreement of the noun 
in the sentence is expressed.* 

ORDER OF PARSING THE NOUN. 

38. The order of parsing a noun is, therefore, to state 
that it is — 

1. A Noun, and why; 

2. Common or Proper, and why; and if Common — 

3. Concrete, Abstract, Collective, Participial or Verbal, and 
why ; and whether Common or Proper — 

4. Its Gender, and why; 

5. Its Number, and why; 

6. Its Person, and why; 

7. Its Case, and why; and, 

8. A Rule of Syntax. 

Remark. — It will be seen that the first three of the above 
topics determine the classification of the noun ; the next four, 
its properties; and the last, its syntactical relation. 



*In general it will be found preferable not to mingle the Rules of Syntax 
with the etymological parts of Grammar. Such commingling of things tends 
to introduce confusion, and to destroy in the student's mind the necessary dis- 
tinction between the two great divisions of the subject before him. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: PAKSING. 73 

MODEL FOR PARSING THE NOUN. 

I. The boatman ascended the river to Wheeling. 

Boatman is a noun, because it is a name; common, because it 
is the name of an object belonging to a class; concrete, 
because it denotes the simple existence of the object; of 
the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male; 
singular number, because it implies but one ; third person, 
because it denotes the person spoken of; in the nomina- 
tive case, being the subject of the sentence, according to 
a rule of syntax which requires that the subject of a sen- 
tence shall be in the nominative case. 

River is a noun, because it is a name; common, because it is 
the name of an object belonging to a class; concrete, be- 
cause it denotes the independent existence of the object ; 
of no gender, because it signifies a thing without sex ; sin- 
gular number, it implies but one; third person, denoting 
the thing spoken of; in the objective case, being the object 
of the action expressed by the verb " ascended," according 
to a rule of syntax which requires that the object of an 
action expressed by a verb shall be in the objective case. 

Wheeling is a noun, because it is a name; proper, because it 
is the name of a particular object ; concrete, denoting the 
independent existence of the thing signified; of no gen- 
der, denoting a thing without sex; singular number, it 
implies but one; third person, spoken of; in the object- 
ive case, being the object of the relation expressed by the 
preposition "to," according to a rule of syntax which re- 
quires that the object of the relation expressed by a prep- 
osition shall be in the objective case. 

II. Man's strength shall fail. 

Man's is a noun, because it is a name ; common, because it 
is a name denoting a class; concrete, because it denotes 
the independent existence of the object; masculine gen- 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

der, because it denotes the male sex; singular number, 
because it implies but one; third person, spoken of; in 
the possessive case, denoting the possessor of " strength,' ' 
according to a rule of syntax which requires that the 
name of the possessor of a thing shall be in the possess- 
ive case. 

Strength is a noun, because it is a name; common, because 
it is a general name ; abstract, because it denotes a qual- 
ity belonging to some other thing; of no gender, denot- 
ing a thing without sex ; singular number, it implies but 
one; third person, spoken of; in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the sentence, according to a rule 
of syntax which requires that the subject of a sentence 
shall be in the nominative case. 

III. Sheep are animals. 

Sheep is a noun, because it is a name; common, because it 
denotes a class of objects; concrete, denoting the inde- 
pendent existence of the objects; of undetermined gen- 
der, denoting objects without discrimination of sex ; plural 
number, denoting more than one; third person, spoken 
of; in the nominative case, being the subject, according 
to a rule of syntax which requires that the subject of a 
sentence shall be in the nominative case. 

Animals is a noun, because it is a name; common, because 
it is the name of a class of objects; concrete, denoting 
the independent existence of the objects; undetermined 
gender, denoting objects without discrimination of sex; 
plural number, it implies more than one; third person, 
spoken of; in the nominative case, being in the predi- 
cate,* after the verb "are," according to a rule of syn- 
tax which requires that a noun in the predicate, after the 
verb to be, shall be in the same case as the subject. 



: 'For the meaning of "predicate," see pages 204, 210. 



ETYMOLOGY.- THE NOUN: PAESING. 75 

IV. Luther, the great German reformer, lived in 
the sixteenth century. 

Luther is a noun, because it is a name; proper, etc., etc. 

Reformer is a noun, because it is a name; common, because it 
is the name of a class; concrete, denoting the independ- 
ent existence of the object; masculine gender, denoting 
the male sex; singular number, it implies but one; third 
person, it denotes the 'person, spoken of; in the nomina- 
tive case, agreeing with the noun "Luther," according to 
a rule of syntax which requires that a noun referring to 
the same person or thing expressed by another noun, shall 
be in the same case with it by apposition. * 

Century is a noun, because it is a name; common, etc., etc. 

V. The class was dismissed. 

Class is a noun, because it is a name; common, because it is 
a general name; collective, because it denotes an assem- 
blage of objects ; undetermined gender, having no discrim- 
ination of sex ; singular number, it implies but one class ; 
third person, spoken of; and in the nominative case, etc. 

VI. O days of youth, farewell ! 

Days is a noun, because it is a name; common, because it is 
the name of a class; concrete, denoting the independent 
existence of the objects signified ; no gender, being with- 
out sex ; plural number, denoting more than one ; second 
person, spoken to; and in the independent case, accord- 
ing to a rule of syntax which requires that nouns ad- 
dressed shall be in the independent case. 

Youth is a noun, etc., etc. 

Remark I. — All nouns may be, with slight modifications, 
parsed according to the above models. 



*For the meaning of "apposition," see page . 

A 



76 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Remark 2. — After the full model of parsing the noun has 
been mastered, an abridged model may be substituted. 

ABRIDGED MODEL FOR PARSING THE NOUN. 

The horse is grazing in the meadow. 

Horse is a noun ; common ; concrete ; masculine gender ; sin- 
gular number; third person; nominative case. 

Meadow is a noun; common; concrete; no gender; singular 
number; third person; objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PAUSING. 

According to the full model, parse all the Nouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1. The stars shine by night. 

2. The tides of ocean follow the moon. 

3. Maples and oaks grow in the forest. 

4. Molasses is imported from the West Indies. 

5. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch Book. 

6. Man often mourns the loss of riches. 

7. What news is brought by the cable from Europe? 

8. The annals of war contain the record of many battles. 

9. The bones of the Crusaders and the broken fragments of 
their weapons were scattered along all the roads from Ravenna 
to Acre. 

10. I heard the trailing garments of the Night 

Sweep through her marble halls! 
I saw her sable skirts all fringed with light 
From the celestial walls. — Longfellow. 

11. The stag at eve had drunk his fill, 
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill, 
And deep his midnight lair had made 
In lone Glenartney's hazel shade. — Scott 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN: PARSING. 77 

12. I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs, 

A palace and a prison on each hand; 
I saw from out the wave her structures rise 

As from the stroke of the enchanter's wand: 

A thousand years their dewy wings expand 
Around me, and a dying glory smiles 

O'er the far times when many a subject land 
Looked to the winged Lion's marble piles, 
Where Venice sate in state, throned on her hundred 
isles. — Byron. 

According to the abridged model, parse all the Nouns in 
the following sentences: 

1. Labor conquers all things. 

2. The sheep are grazing in the pasture. 

3. A flock of quail flew up from their covert. 

4. The people of this island were barbarians. 

5. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. 

6. Before the days of Columbus, America was visited by 
the Northmen. 

7. Dickens has given us graphic sketches of the street -life 
of London. 

8. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears ; 

I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. — Shakespeare. 

9. Clasp, angel of the backward look, 

The brazen covers of thy book. — Whittier. 

10. Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 



78 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE PRONOUN. 

I. CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Principle. — Persons or things may be represented 
by words other than the names of those persons or things. 

2. Any word which represents a person or thing, but 
is not the name of that person or thing, is a Pronoun. 

3. Pronouns may represent the objects for which they 
stand in four ways : 

1. By standing directly for the object itself, or for the name 
of the object. 

2. By a direct relation or reference to the object. 

3. By an inquiry or question concerning the object. 

4. By a general reference to the object. 

4. The first class of pronouns represent either the ob- 
ject itself or the name of the object. 

Examples. — 1. J was present when you made the assertion. 

2. Thou knowest not the purpose which we have formed. 

3. Let there be peace between thee and me. 

In these examples the pronouns "I," "you," "thou," "we," 
"thee," and "me," stand directly for the persons speaking or 
the persons spoken to. The reference is not to the names of 
the persons, but to the persons themselves. 

4. A man fails in nothing which he boldly undertakes. 

5. The soldiers retreated when they saw the enemy. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PRONOUN: CLASSIFICATION. 79 

6. Charlie and Tom bought a book ; they read it through, 
and then sold it to a lad who met them at their house. 

In example 4, the pronoun "he" stands for the noun 
"man;" in example 5, the pronoun "they 77 stands for the 
noun " soldiers ; 77 in example 6, the pronouns " they, 77 " their, 77 
"theni," stand for the nouns "Charlie 77 and "Tom, 77 and the 
pronoun "it" stands for the noun "book. 77 

5. The pronouns I, thou, he, she, and it, with their 
plurals we, you, ye, and they, express grammatical per- 
son by a change in the form of the word. 

Examples. — /, first person; thoiij second person; he, third 
person, etc. Hence the name of personal pronouns applied 
to this group of words. 

Remark. — The name pronoun (=for a noun) is hardly cor- 
rect when applied to the words I, thou, we, you, etc. A truer 
distinction would be to call them Personal Nouns. 

6. Pronouns which stand directly for the object re- 
ferred to, or for the name of that object, are called 
Personal Pronouns. 

The Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you, 
they, and their derived cases. 

Remark. — The word for which a pronoun stands is called 
its Antecedent. 

7. The second class of pronouns represent the objects 
for which they stand by expressing a direct relation. 

Examples. — 1. The student who was sick has recovered. 

2. The man ivhose house was burned, has built another. 

3. The orator whom, we so much admired, is dead. 

4. The things which pleased us please no more. 

5. The hopes that once were bright have faded. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In example 1, the. pronoun "who" stands for the noun 
"student" by relation; that is, it relates to the noun as its 
antecedent. By this means we have two sentences in one. 
The two sentences are: 

a. The student has recovered; 

b. The student was sick. 

Instead of expressing the two thoughts separately, we bind 
them together by omitting the noun "student" in the second 
sentence and inserting the pronoun "who" in its place — thus : 

a. The student has recovered; 

b. Who was sick = The student who was sick has recovered. 

In examples 2, 3, 4, and 5, the pronouns "whose," "whom," 
"which," and "that," stand for or represent their antecedents 
"man," "orator," "things," and "hopes," by relation; that 
is, they relate to those nouns as their antecedents. 

8. Pronouns which represent their antecedents by re- 
lation are called Relative Pronouns. 

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, and that. 

9. The third class of pronouns refer to their ante- 
cedents by interrogation; that is, they ask questions the 
answers to' which are the antecedents. 

Examples. — 1. Who is that man on horseback? 

2. Whose work is this? 

3. Which is the road to Columbus? 

4. What has been the history of political parties? 

We may answer these questions thus: 

(1.) General Sheridan. 

(2.) It is the work of a boy. 

(3.) The left-hand road. 

(4.) A record of inconsistencies. 

In these four answers the nouns "General Sheridan," 
"work," "road," and "record," are the antecedents of the 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PKONOUN: CLASSIFICATION. 81 

pronouns "who," "whose," "which," and "what," in the 
preceding questions. 

10. Pronouns which refer to their antecedents by in- 
terrogation are called Interrogative Pronouns. 

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what. 

Remark. — In the case of the interrogative pronoun, the an- 
tecedent goes before the pronoun in thought, but after it in 
expression. 

Example. — Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 
Answer, Jefferson. 

Here the noun " Jefferson " stands after the pronoun "who," 
and for this reason some grammarians have preferred to call 
the noun to which an interrogative pronoun refers, its Subse- 
quent instead of its Antecedent. 

11. The fourth class of pronouns point to their ante- 
cedents by a general reference, without specifying any 
particular object. 

Examples. — 1. One would suppose that spring had come. 

2. Some seem to think that labor is disgraceful. 

3. Others have been in doubt, as well as we. 

In these examples the pronouns "one," "some," and "oth- 
ers," refer to their antecedents in a general way, without point- 
ing out any particular persons. 

In the first sentence "one" = any body. In the second 
example "some" points to a class of persons without indi- 
cating individuals; "others" expresses a similar relation. 

12. Pronouns which point to their antecedents by a 
general reference are called Indefinite Pronouns. 

The principal Indefinite Pronouns are all, another, any, cer- 
tain, divers, few, it, little, many, none, one, other, some, and they. 



82 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

13. We thus find that pronouns are divided into four 
classes: 

I. Personal Pronouns; 

II. Relative Pronouns; 

III. Interrogative Pronouns; 

IV. Indefinite Pronouns. 

Special Remark. — The properties— that is, the gender, num- 
ber, person, and case — of the pronouns are precisely the same 
as the properties of nouns, except — 

1. The person of personal pronouns is marked by distinct 
forms of the words ; as, 7, first person ; thou, second person ; 
he, third person; etc. 

2. In forming the cases of pronouns a distinct form of the 
words is used to indicate the objective; as, he, nominative 
case; him, objective case; etc. 

14. Scheme of the Pronoun : 

1. Personal: 
I, thou, he, we, etc. 

2. Relative: 

^, n , , , Who, which, what, that. 

The Pronoun — divided into : ( 

3. Interrogative : 
Who? which? what? 

4. Indefinite: 
All, any, few, many, etc. 



exercises. 

1. Write lists and Scheme of the Personal, Relative, Inter- 
rogative, and Indefinite Pronouns. 

2. Write five sentences containing Personal Pronouns. 

3. Write five sentences containing Relative Pronouns. 

4. Write five sentences containing Interrogative Pronouns. 

5. Write Hyq sentences containing Indefinite Pronouns. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PKONOUN: DECLENSION. 83 



II. DECLENSION. 
15. The Personal Pronouns are declined as follows: 



FIRST PERSON. 



Singular. 

Nom. I, 

JPoss. My or mine, 

Obj. Me, 

Ind. Me or I. 



Plural. 

Nom. We, 

JPoss. Our or ours, 

Obj. Us, 

Ind. We. 



SECOND PERSON -UNUSUAL FORM. 



Nom. Thou, 

JPoss. Thy or thine, 

Obj. Thee, 

Ind. Thou or thee. 



Nom. Ye, 

Fbss. Your or yours, 

Obj. You, 

ihd. Ye. 



Nom. You, 

Poss. Your or yours 

Obj. You, 

Jnd. You. 



THIRD PERSON — USUAL FORM. 

Nom. You, 

JPoss. Your or yours, 

C%\ You, 

Ind. You. 



THIRD PERSON. 



Mas. Gen. 

Nom. He, 
Pos.s. His, 
Obj. Him, 



jFe/u. (ren. No Gen. 

She, It, 

Her or hers, Its, 
Her, It, 



Ind. He or him. She or her. It. 



All Genders. 

They, 

Their or theirs 

Them, 

They. 



Remark I. — The forms thou and ye, with their derived cases, 
are chiefly used by the Society of Friends and in elevated and 
solemn forms of speech, such a|S poetry and prayer. 



84 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Remark 2. — The possessive forms mine, thine, hers, ours, 
yours, and theirs are used instead of my, thy, her, our, your, 
and their, when the names of the objects possessed are omitted. 

Examples. — 1. That road leads to your house; this one, 
to mine = my house. 

2. Take the things that are thine — thy things. 

3. His book and hers ( = her book ) are lying on the table. 

4. We have our beliefs ; the heathen have theirs = their 
beliefs. 

Remark 3. — The personal pronoun you is always plural in 
form, though in sense it may be either singular or plural. 

Remark 4. — It will be seen that in the formation of the pos- 
sessive case of pronouns the apostrophe ( ' ) is omitted. 

16. To certain forms of the personal pronouns the 
word self (plural selves) is sometimes added, forming 
what are called Compound Personal Pronouns. 

Examples. — Myself, thyself, himself, ourselves, etc. 
The laws for the formation of compound personals are : 

1. In the first and second persons add self or selves to the 
possessive case of the simple pronouns. 

Examples. — My + self — myself ; thy + self = thyself ; your 
+ self— yourself; our + selves = ourselves ; your + selves = your- 
selves. 

2. In the third person add self or selves to the objective case 
of the simple pronouns. 

Examples. — Him + self = himself ; her + self = herself ; it 
+ self = itself ; them -f selves = themselves. 

Remark I. — All other combinations of self or selves with the 
personal pronouns, — such as hisself, itsself, theirselves, etc., — 
are erroneous. 

Remark 2. — The compound personal pronouns are generally 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PEONOUN : DECLENSION. 85 

used for emphasis, and are joined to the simple forms of the 
words from which they are derived. 

Examples. — I myself; he himself; they themselves; etc. 

Remark 3. — Sometimes the compound personal pronouns 
are used alone. 

Examples. — 1. T/iyself shalt see the wonders of the place. 
2. Myself will do the deed. 

Remark 4. — The compound personal pronouns are used only 
in the nominative and objective cases. In order to form a com- 
pound personal for the possessive case the word ozvn is added 
after the simple forms of the personal pronouns possessive — 
thus : My own, thy own, his ozvn, her own, our own, your own, 
their ozvn. This combination is used for emphasis in nearly 
the same sense as myself, thyself, etc. 

Remark 5. — The compound personals have no changes in 
form, except the distinction of self and selves, to distinguish 
the singular from the plural. 

17. The Compound Personal Pronoun is declined as 
follows : 

SlXGULAR. 



Nom. Myself, 

Poss. My own, 

Obj. Myself, 

Lid. Myself. 



Nom. Ourselves, 

Poss. Our own, 

Obj. Ourselves, 

Ind. Ourselves. 



18. The Relative Pronouns are declined as follows : 

WHO — FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS. 



SlXGULAR. 

Nom. Who, 

Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom. 

Ind. 



Plural. 

Nom. Who, 

Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom. 

Ind. 



86 ENGLISH GKAMMAlR. 



WIII€H — THIRD PERSON. 



Singular. 



Nom. Which, 

Poss. Of which,* 

Obj. Which. 

Ind. 



Plural. 



Nom. Which, 

Poss. Of which, 

Obj. Which. 

Ind. 



Remark I. — The relatives that and what are indeclinable. 

Remark 2. — The relative who always refers to persons or to 
things personified. 

Examples. — 1. The man who led our horses spoke French. 

2. The lady whom we saw at the bridge lives in Marietta. 

3. The general whose statue this is, died in 1816. 

4. The people who gathered around were eager to hear the 
young man's story. 

5. The fox who saw the trap said to his companion, etc. 

6. The worm who had been boasting to his companions fell 
into the brook. 

Remark 3. — The relative which refers to irrational beings 
and to things without life. 

Examples. — 1. The tunnel which we entered, was nearly a 
mile in length. 

2. This is the book which we are to study. 

3. The horse ivhich I bought, has returned to his old master. 

Remark 4. — In Old English which was used of persons as 



*Most grammarians insert whose as the possessive case of which; and for such 
a declension much good usage may be cited. Nevertheless, the very form of the 
word indicates that such usage is unwarranted by the laws of the language. Whose 
is derived from who, and can never truly express any other than a relation to per- 
sons. Whatever usage may seem to warrant, it is certainly desirable to purify our 
current English by rejecting all ungrammatical forms of speech. To say, "The 
tree whose branches have been broken off," is to speak bad English ; but to speak 
of " a tree the branches of which have been broken off" is to use a form demanded 
alike by a pure grammar of English and by the laws of all the Teutonic languages. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PKONOUN: DECLENSION. 87 

Remark 5. — Which is properly used in reference to rational 
beings when one of several persons is to be distinguished. 

Examples. — 1. I know not to which of the men he refers. 
2. It is doubtful which of the ladies should have the prize. 

Remark 6. — The relative that refers to both persons and 
things. 

Examples. — 1. A book that lay on the table. 

2. The crowds that came into the city. 

3. The dog that lay in the manger. 

4. The man that stood in the market. 

5. The evil that men do lives after them. 

Remark 7. — The relative what contains the antecedent in 
itself and is equivalent to that which or the thing which. 

Examples. — 1. I believe what (=the thing which) he says. 
2. The lad was frightened at what (= that which) he saw. 

Special Xote. — The conjunction as, when it follows a noun pre- 
ceded by such, may be parsed as a Relative Pronoun. 

19. By adding ever or soever to the relatives who, 
which, and what, we form the Compound Relatives who- 
ever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and 
whatsoever. 

Whoever and whosoever are declined thus : 



Singular and Plural. 

Nom. Whoever, 

Poss. Whosever, 

Obj. Whomever. 

Ind. 



Singular and Plural. 

Nom. Whosoever, 

Poss. Whosesoever, 

Obj. Whomsoever. 

Ind. 



Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever are inde- 
clinable. 

Remark, — The Old English relative whoso = whoever. 



88 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

20. The Interrogative Pronouns are declined as fol- 
lows: 

WHO — MASCULINE AND FEMININE. 

Singular and Plural. 

Nom, Who, 

Poss. Whose, 

Obj, Whom. 

Ind. 

Remark I. — The interrogative tuhich is declined as the rela- 
tive which. 

Remark 2. — The interrogative what is indeclinable. 

Remark 3. — The interrogative who is used in reference to 
persons only ; ivhich and what are used of both persons and 
things. 

Remark 4. — Who inquires indefinitely, and which, definitely, 
for the person or persons referred to. 

Examples. — 1. Who can escape from the influence of habit? 
2. Which of the soldiers showed the greatest courage? 

21. The Indefinite Pronouns are irregular in their 
grammatical forms. 

1. All has a plural form, but sometimes a singular sense. 
Examples. — All (plural) have hope. All (singular) is lost. 

2. Any is singular in form, but sometimes plural in sense. 
Remark. — All and any have no possessive form. 

3. Another is singular in both form and meaning, and has 
a possessive form, another's. 

4. Certain, divers, and few arc plural in sense, and have no 
possessive. 

5. The indefinites it and they are the same as the personals 
it and they, but are used in the nominative case only. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PKONOUN: PAUSING. 89 

Examples. — They say that labor conquers all things, 
snows in winter. 

6. Little is used in the singular only ; it has no possessive 
form. 

7. Many is plural in both form and meaning; it has no 
possessive form. 

8. None is singular in form (—no one), but generally plu- 
ral in sense. It has no possessive form. 

9. One is regularly declined, having its possessive one's and 
plural ones. 

10. Other has a possessive other's and plural others. 

11. Some is generally plural, though sometimes singular, in 
sense. It has no possessive form. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write declensions of the Personal, Relative, Interroga- 
tive, and Indefinite Pronouns. 

2. Write sentences illustrating the different Cases of the 
pronouns 7", he, and they. 

3. Write sentences illustrating the different Cases and 
Numbers of the Relative tuho and the Interrogative who. 



III. PARSING. 

22. The parsing of pronouns is very similar to that 
of nouns ; but — 

1. In parsing nouns the properties of gender, number, per- 
son, and case belong to the nouns themselves ; while, 

2. In parsing pronouns the properties of gender, number, 
and person are derived from the nouns for tuhich the pronouns 
stand; and, 

3. The case only of the pronoun is determined independ- 
ently of the noun to which it refers. 



90 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



ORDER OF PARSING THE PRONOUN. 

23. The order of parsing a pronoun is : 

1. A Pronoun, and why; 

2. Personal, Relative, Interrogative, or Indefinite, and why ; 

3. Gender, Number, and Person, and why ; 

4. Case, and why ; 

5. A Rule of Syntax. 



MODEL FOR PARSING PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

I. When the man entered, he said, "Good -morning." 

He is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun "man;" per- 
sonal, because it expresses grammatical person by the form 
of the word ; of the masculine gender, singular number, 
and third person, deriving its properties from its anteced- 
ent, "man;" and in the nominative case, being the sub- 
ject of the verb "said," according to a rule of syntax 
which requires that the subject of a verb shall be in the 
nominative case. 

II. The lady lost her fan at church. 

Her is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun "lady;" per- 
sonal, because it expresses grammatical person by the form 
of the word ; of the feminine gender, singular number,, and 
third person, deriving its properties from its antecedent, 
" lady ; " and in the possessive case, denoting the possessor, 
according to a rule of syntax which requires that a noun 
or pronoun denoting the possessor shall be in the possessive 
case. 

III. You and I were there together. 

You is a pronoun, because it stands for the person spoken to ; 
personal, because it expresses grammatical person by the 
form of the word; of undetermined gender, singular (or 
plural) number, and second person, deriving its properties 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PRONOUN: PARSING. 91 

from the person for whom the pronoun stands; and in 
the nominative case, being one of the subjects of the verb 
" were," according to a rule of syntax which requires that 
the subject of a verb shall be in the nominative case. 

I is a pronoun, because it stands for the speaker ; personal, de- 
noting grammatical person by the form of the word ; of 
undetermined gender, singular number, and first person, 
deriving its properties from the person for whom the pro- 
noun stands ; and in the nominative case, etc. 

IV. When the passengers reached the boat the clerk met 
them and recorded their names. 

Them is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun "passen- 
gers ; personal, etc. ; undetermined gender, plural number, 
and third person, deriving its properties from its anteced- 
ent, " passengers ; " and in the objective case, being the ob- 
ject of the action expressed by the verb "met," according 
to a rule of syntax which requires that the object of an 
action expressed by a verb shall be in the objective case. 

Their is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun "passen- 
gers;" personal, etc.; undetermined gender, etc.; and in 
the possessive case, denoting the possessor, etc. 

V. Your argument will be used against yourself. 

Your is a pronoun, etc.; personal, etc.; undetermined gender, 
etc. ; possessive ease, denoting the possessor, etc. 

Yourself is a pronoun, because it stands for the person spoken 
to; personal, etc.; compound, being formed by the addi- 
tion of the word, self to the simple pronoun your, and used 
for the sake of emphasis; of undetermined gender, etc.; 
and in the objective case, being the object of the relation 
expressed by the preposition "against," according to a rule 
of syntax which requires that a noun or pronoun which is 
the object of the relation expressed by a preposition shall 
be in the objective case. 



92 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

MODEL FOR PARSING RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

I. The man who hopes for nothing, does nothing. 

Who is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun "man; " rel- 
ative, because it represents its antecedent by relation; of 
the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, 
deriving its properties from its antecedent, " man ; " and in 
the nominative case, being the subject of the verb "hopes," 
according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

II. The girl whom we saw at school is at the gate. 

Whom is a pronoun, etc. ; relative, because it represents its an- 
tecedent by relation ; of the feminine gender, etc. ; and in 
the objective case, being the object of the action expressed 
by the verb "saw," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

III. The men whose farms lay side by side have 
quarreled. 

Whose is a pronoun, etc. ; relative, because it represents its an- 
tecedent by relation ; of the masculine gender, plural num- 
ber, and third person ; and in the possessive case, denoting 
the possessor, etc. 

IV. The trials which men endure make them strong. 

Which is a pronoun, etc. ; relative, because it represents its an- 
tecedent by relation; of no gender, plural number, and 
third person, deriving its properties from its antecedent, 
" trials; " and in the objective case, being the object of the 
action expressed by the verb "endure," according to a rule, 
etc. 

V. Fatal the tidings that came to us. 

That is a pronoun, etc.; relative, etc.; of no gender, plural 
number, and third person, deriving its properties from its 
antecedent, "tidings; " and in the nominative case, being 
the subject of the verb "came," etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PRONOUN: PARSING. 93 

VI. I believe what he says. 

What is a pronoun, because it stands for some noun understood ; 
relative, because it represents its antecedent by relation ; 
compound, because it includes its own antecedent, being 
equivalent to the thing which. 

Thing is a noun, because it is a name, etc. 

Which is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun "thing;" 
relative, because it represents its antecedent by relation ; 
of no gender, singular number, and third person, deriving 
its properties from its antecedent, "thing; " and in the ob- 
jective case, being the object of the verb "says," according 
to a rule of syntax, etc. 

VII. Whoever wastes his- time in youth will sorrow 
in old age. 

Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to the man 
who, or he ivho. 

Man is a noun, because it is a name, etc.; or, 

He is a pronoun, etc. 

Who is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun "man ; " rela- 
tive, because it represents its antecedent by relation ; of 
the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, 
deriving its properties from its antecedent "man," etc. 



MODEL FOR PARSING INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

I. Who will solve this problem? 

Who is a pronoun, because it represents some noun; interrog- 
ative, because it refers to its antecedent by inquiry; of 
undetermined gender, singular number, and third person, 
deriving its properties from its antecedent; and in the 
nominative case, being the subject of the verb "will solve," 
according to a rule of syntax, etc. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

II. Which is the road that leads to Springfield ? 

Which is a pronoun, because it represents a noun ; interrogative, 
because it refers to its antecedent by inquiry ; of no gen- 
der, singular number, and third person, deriving its proper- 
ties from its antecedent ; and in the nominative case, being 
the subject of the verb "-is," according to a rule of syntax 
which requires that the subject of a sentence shall be in 
the nominative case. 

III. What was the cause of this accident ? 

What is a pronoun, because it represents a noun ; interrogative, 
because it refers to its antecedent by inquiry ; of no gen- 
der, singular number, and third person, deriving its proper- 
ties from its antecedent ; and in the nominative case, being 
the subject of the verb "was," etc. 



MODEL FOR PARSING INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

I. With malice toward none, with charity for all. 

None is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun ; indefinite, be- 
cause it refers to no particular antecedent ; of undetermined 
gender, plural number, and third person, deriving its prop- 
erties from its antecedent ; and in the objective case, being 
the object of the relation expressed by the preposition " to- 
ward," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

All is a pronoun, etc. ( Parsed in the same manner as " none.") 



ABRIDGED MODEL FOR PARSING THE PRONOUN. 

The boy went wherever he pleased. 

He is a pronoun ; personal ; masculine gender, singular num- 
ber, third person; nominative case. 

In like manner the parsing of all prqnoims may be abridged. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PRONOUN : PARSING. 95 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in the following sentences : * 

1. Charley is playing with his brothers. 

2. Seven boys and girls are we. 

3. The boatman called to us for help. 

4. The hunter stooped dow T n as he entered the cabin. 

5. The man whistled and his dog came to him. 

6. Leaves have their time to fall. 

7. A politician who leads us astray is our enemy. 

8. I was, as it were, a child of thee. 

9. I had a dream which was not all a dream. 

10. You that are noble born should pity him. 

11. They also serve who only stand and wait. 

12. I charge thee that thou attend to me. 

13. The place to which we came was an open field. 

14. The place that we came to was an open field. 

15. I do not know whom to send. 

16. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? 

17. What is that dark object in the valley? 

18. As we began to climb the mountain, it thundered. 

19. It is fit this soldier should keep his oath. 

20. No one to love me, none to caress. 

21. As they stood face to face, each seemed the other. 

22. All who enter on this scene must die. 

23. It is a pretty saying of a wicked one. 

24. Some went forward on the trail; others returned. 

25. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land? — Scott 

26. All nature is but art unknown to thee; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see; 
All discord, harmony not understood ; 
All partial evil, universal good. — Pope. 



* The Nouns, according to (he Abridged Model. 



96 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

I. CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Principle. — The meaning of a noun or pronoun 
may be described or defined by some other word.. 

2. Any word which is used to describe or define the 
meaning of a noun or pronoun, is an Adjective. 

Remark I. — Every word which in any way varies the sense 
of a noun or pronoun, will fall under this general term. 

Remark 2. — The word adjective means that which is added 
to ; that is, added to the meaning of a noun. 

3. Arising from the definition, there are two general 
classes of adjectives: 

1. Those which describe the meanings of nouns or pro- 
nouns, — called Descriptive or Qualifying Adjectives; 

2. Those which define or limit the meanings of nouns or 
pronouns, — called Definitive or Limiting Adjectives. 

Remark I. — The Descriptive Adjective always fixes the thought 
upon some quality expressed by the adjective itself. 

Examples.— A sweet apple; a bitter almond; a tall tree; 
a terrible storm. 

Here the adjectives "sweet," "bitter," "tall," and "terri- 
ble," express certain qualities upon which the mind rests ) and 
which it may consider independently of the nouns "apple," 
"almond," etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: CLASSIFICATION. 97 

Remark 2. — The Definitive Adjective merely carries the mind 
forward to the noun, and does not itself express any idea upon 
which the thought may rest. 

Examples. — That apple; ten pebbles ; every student ; another 
planet. 

Here the adj eeti ves 1 ' that, 7 ' " ten, " u every, 7 ' and ' l another, ' } 
do not themselves express any idea upon which the mind may 
rest. They simply carry the thought to the noun, and demand 
that the noun shall be considered in a certain modified, re- 
stricted, or limited sense. 

SECTION I.— DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

4. Descriptive or Qualifying adjectives are divided 
into four classes: I. Common; II. Proper; III. Par- 
ticipial; IV. Compound. 

I. COMMON ADJECTIVES. 

To this class belong a large majority of the adjectives in the 
English language. 

Examples. — A green field ; a good farm; a bad enterprise; 
a noble deed ; a true hero ; a broad prairie ; a crimson cloud. 

Remark I. — Many common nouns are used as adjectives. 

Examples. — An iron ring ; a leather bucket ; a silver spoon ; 
the ice season ; a country dance ; a lake schooner. 

Remark 2. — The adjective is frequently used (especially in 
the plural number ) without the noun which it describes. 

Examples. — The good are prosperous; the bad are always 
in trouble ; the brave are honored ; etc. 

Remark 3. — Common adjectives are derived from common 
(generally abstract) nouns. 
*9 



98 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

Examples. — True, from truth; manly, from man; red, 
from red; natural, from nature; foolish, from fool; etc. 

H. PROPER ADJECTIVES. 

To this class belong all adjectives derived from proper nouns. 

Examples. — A French proverb; an African forest; a Ro- 
man citizen; the Egyptian pyramids; a Chinese custom; a 
Websterian oration; the Shakespearean drama; etc. 

Remark. — If the reference to the noun from which the ad- 
jective is derived has been lost or forgotten, then the adjective 
becomes common. 

Ex amples. — A herculean undertaking ; a stentorian voice ; 
an epicurean taste ; etc. 

Here the word "herculean" is derived from Hercules; "sten- 
torian," from Stentor; and "epicurean," from Epicurus; but 
the adjectives no longer refer particularly to the nouns from 
which they are derived. 

III. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

To this class belong all participles* used as adjectives. 

Examples. — The dying swan ; the flowing stream ; the mut- 
tering storm ; the fading sunset ; the moaning ocean ; an unset- 
tled purpose; a withered leaf; a scented handkerchief; a fallen 
pillar; etc. 

Remark. — Participial adjectives are distinguished from com- 
mon adjectives only by their derivation from participles. 

IV. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 

To this class belong such adjectives as are made up of com" 
binations of two or more single words joined together in sense. 



♦For the meaning of "participles," see page . /3&' 

A 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: CLASSIFICATION. 99 

Examples. — A half- starved wolf '; a side-splitting joke] a 
iveb -footed bird; a ivoe- begone countenance; a doubled -and - 
twisted rope; a never - to- be -for gotten incident; etc. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Select paragraphs and point out the several kinds of De- 
scriptive Adjectives. 

2. Write a list of twenty Descriptive Adjectives. 

3. Write five sentences containing Proper Adjectives. 

4. Write sentences containing Participial and Compound 
Adjectives. 



SECTION II. — DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

5. Definitive or Limiting adjectives are divided into 
three classes : I. Articles ; II. Pronominal Adjec- 
tives; III. Numerals. 

I. ARTICLES. 

6. The word the is placed before a noun to point out 
the object definitely, and is called the Definite Article. 

Examples. — 1 . The tornado passed over the village. 

2. The workmen walked along the track to the bridge. 

3. The leaves were blown by the wind over the fence into the 
garden. 

7. The word an is placed before a noun to point out 
the object in a general or indefinite manner, and is called 
the Indefinite Article. 

Examples. — 1. An eager throng gathered in an open field. 

2. An apple fell into an upturned palm. 

3. An artist sketched an orchard and an old house. 



100 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

Remark I. — Other words (as adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions) 
may interpose between the Articles and the nouns to which they 
belong. 

Examples. — An unusually bright morning; an open-hearted 
friend; the swiftest and broadest river; etc. 

Remark 2. — When the article an stands before a word begin- 
ning with a consonant sound, the n of the article is dropped, 
the article in that case being written a. 

Examples.— 1. A #leam of sunshine on a cloudy day. 

2. A recollection of a £ime long past. 

3. A maple standing by a 6rook in a pasture. 

Remark 3. — It is the consonant sound and the vow T el sound 
that determines whether the Indefinite Article shall be writ- 
ten an or a. 

Remark 4. — If the following word begins with a vowel, but 
has an initial consonantal sound, the Indefinite Article is writ- 
ten a, and not an. 

Examples. — A useful instrument ; a Union of States; such 
a one ; etc. 

Here the words "useful" and "Union" begin with the sound 
of y, — a consonant ; and the word " one " begins with the sound 
of w, — a consonant. 

Remark 5. — If the following word begins with a consonant, 
but has an initial vowel sound, the Indefinite Article is writ- 
ten an. 

Examples. — An Aonest man; an Aour- glass; * etc. 



*In the spoken language of England the letter h is very feeble. As a conse- 
quence most English writers, and certain American authors and grammarians 
following the English fashion, are in the habit of writing an before many words 
beginning with h, as though such words were begun with a vowel sound; as, 
an humble man; an humorous story; an hundred; an host; an history; an his- 
torical account; etc. This usage, based as it is either upon a false pronunciation 
.or upon hair-splitting as to the position of the accent, is erroneous, and should be 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: CLASSIFICATION. 101 

Remark 6. — The Definite Article the has the same root- 
meaning as the word that, both being derived from the Anglo- 
Saxon thcet. 

Remark 7. — The Indefinite Article an has the same root- 
meaning as the word one, both being derived from the Anglo- 
Saxon an, meaning one. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write three sentences containing the Definite Article. 

2. Write three sentences containing the Indefinite Article. 

3. Write sentences illustrating the uses of an and a before 
Vowel and Consonant sounds. 



II. PRONOMINAL ADJECTITES. 

8. Many words which generally perform the office of 
pronouns are also used with nouns as adjectives, and 
when so used are called Pronominal Adjectives. 

Examples. — 1. All men think all men mortal but them- 
selves. 

2. Both troopers came galloping on. 

3. Each soldier heard the signal. 

4. Few men reach the goal of their ambition. 

9, Pronominal adjectives are divided into four classes : 
I. Demonstratives ; II. Distributives; III. Indefinites ; 
IY. Interrogatives and Relatives. 



universally condemned. The Indefinite Article before words beginning with h, 
should always be written a, except where the h is silent; as, a humble man; a 
hundred miles; a host; a humorous story; a historical account. The opposite 
usage tends to destroy the force and distinctness of our American h and to bring 
about those very forms of speech which have been so much ridiculed in En- 
gland, such as 'andsome, for handsome; 'orse, for horse; 'undrcd, for hundred; 
'it Hm on* 'is 'ead, for hit him on his head; etc. 



102 



ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



I. Demonstratives. 

10. Demonstratives point out specifically and definitely 
the objects to which they refer. 

"Demonstrative" is derived from the Latin demonstrare, 
to point out, as with the index ringer : That book = $$$^ book. 

List of Demonstratives.* 



Singular. 


Plural. 


This, 


These. 


That, 


Those. 


Former, 


Former. 


Latter, 


Latter. 



Singular. 


Plural. 




Both. 




Same, 


Same. 


Yon, 


Yon. 


Yonder, 


Yonder 



Remark \.—This and that have as plurals these and those. 
No other adjectives have a similar variation in form to indi- 
cate the plural. 

Remark 2. — The demonstrative this (plural these) points out 
an object as present to the speaker; present either in time, in 
place, or in thought. 

Examples. — 1. This hour has been long a -coming. 

Here "hour" is present in time. 

2. This bill is the place for the picnic. 
Here "hill" is present in place. 

3. These projects can never succeed. 
Here "projects" are present in thought. 

Remark 3. — The demonstrative that (plural those) points out 
an object as remote from the speaker; remote either in time, 
in place, or in thought. 



* Those grammarians who regard the Demonstratives as pronouns rather than 
adjectives, generally give to this group of words the name of Adjective or Demon- 
strative Pronouns. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: CLASSIFICATION. 103 

Examples. — 1. That day will never come. 
Here " day " is remote in time. 

2. That spot so green among the distant Mils. 
Here "spot" is remote in place. 

3. Those dreams have vanished forever. 

Here "dreams" are remote in thought. 

Note. — The use of the personal pronoun them instead of the demon- 
strative those (them books for those books) is a gross error. 

Remark 4. — The demonstrative former points out an object 
first mentioned of two. Latter and former are always used 
of things placed in contrast. 

Remark 5. — The demonstrative latter points out an object 
last mentioned of two. 

Examples. — 1. The hunter and the trapper went into the 
woods together. The former returned with his game, but the 
latter was never heard of afterwards. 

2. Washington and Adams were the first two Presidents. 
The former was a military leader ; the latter, a civilian. 

Remark 6. — Both signifies two objects taken together. 

Examples. — Henry and Tom both ran to the play -ground. 
Both city and country poured out their treasures. 

Remark 7. — The demonstrative same signifies the identity 
of some object with some other object previously known or 
mentioned. 

Example. — This is the same man whom we met in the 
village. 

Remark 8. — The demonstratives yon and yonder point out 
objects seen at a distance. 

Examples. — How slow yon tiny vessel plows the main. 
Yonder fleecy clouds and blue sky remind us of Italy. 



104 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

IT. Distributives. 

11. Distributives are used to point out objects taken 
separately. The distributives are each, every, either, and 
neither. 

Remark I. — The distributive each points out one of any num- 
ber of objects as considered by itself. 

Examples. — Each of the boys was intent on his own proj- 
ect. Let each of the soldiers salute with his right hand. 

Remark 2. — The distributive every points out all of a group 

of objects considered separately. 

Examples. — Every man in the assembly rose to his feet. 
Every flower in the bed has its own fragrance. 

Remark 3. — The distributive either points out one of tioo 
objects. 

Examples. — Either of the ( two ) pens will answer. Either 
of the ( two ) boys may go ; etc. 

Remark 4. — The distributive neither is the negative of either; 
that is, neither = not either. 

Examples.— Neither (=not either) of the apples is perfect. 
Neither (= not either) of the hats will fit. 

III. Indefinites. 

12. Many of the Indefinite Pronouns* are used with 
nouns as adjectives, and when so used are called Indefi- 
nite Pronominal Adjectives. 

Remark I. — The indefinite all is applied to a number of ob- 
jects taken as a ivhole. 

Examples. — All men struggle to be foremost. All prospects 
fail, all visions fade away. 



*See list, page 81. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE ADJECTIVE: CLASSIFICATION. 105 

Remark 2. — When the definite article the is inserted between 
all and the noun to which it belongs, some grammarians parse 
all as an indefinite pronoun, and the noun as the object of the 
preposition of understood. 

Example. — All the sailors were anxious to leave the port = 
all of the sailors, etc. 

Remark 3. — The indefinite any is applied to one of several 
objects or to some of a quantity. 

Examples. — Tell the story to any man you meet. Is there 
any butter in the market ? 

Remark 4. — The indefinite certain points out one selected 
from a number of objects, or a number selected from a greater 
number. 

Examples. — A certain fox was caught in a trap. Eclipses 
happen in certain months this year. 

Remark 5. — The indefinites few, many, and some denote re- 
spectively a small number, a large number, an indefinite num- 
ber of the things referred to. 

Remark 6. — The indefinites little, much, and some denote re- 
spectively a small quantity, a large quantity, an indefinite quan- 
tity of the thing referred to. 

Remark 7. — The indefinite other points out an object not the 
same as one already referred to. 

Examples. — The other robber escaped. The other road led 
to Springfield. 

Remark 8. — Another = an other. 

IV. Interrogatives and Relatives. 

13. The Interrogative Pronouns tvhich and what and 
the Relatives which and what are frequently used as lim- 
iting adjectives. 



106 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Examples. — 1. Which offer will you accept? 

2. What hope has he of evading the law ? 

3. I know zuhich offer you will accept. 

4. I know r what plan he will adopt. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write a list of Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives. 

2. Write sentences illustrating the uses of This and That 

3. Write sentences illustrating the uses of Latter and Former. 

4. Write five sentences containing Distributive Pronominal 
Adjectives. 

5. Write five sentences containing Indefinite Fronominal 
Adjectives. 

6. Write five sentences containing Interrogative and Rela- 
tive Pronominal Adjectives. 

in. NUMERALS. 

14. Adjectives which express number or order defi- 
nitely are called Numeral Adjectives. 

Examples. — Tivo streets ; ten States ; forty volumes ; seven 
hundred and forty - six dollars. The second class ; the fifth rule ; 
the Fortieth Congress ; the thousandth year ; etc. 

15. Numerals are divided into three classes: I. Car- 
dinals; II. Ordinals; III. Multvplicatives. 

I. Cardinals. 

1G. Cardinals express definitely the number of objects 
considered. 

Examples. — Three lessons ; twenty rods ; seventy -five acres. 

Remark. — The cardinals from one to ninety-nine are simple 
definitive adjectives; but hundred, thousand, million, etc., may 






ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: CLASSIFICATION. 107 

be preceded by the indefinite article A, and in that case they 
may be regarded as nouns. 

Examples. — A hundred men — a hundred of men; a thou- 
sand miles = a thousand of miles. The true nature of hundred, 
thousand, etc., is also shown by their admitting a plural, hun- 
dreds, thousands, etc. 

II. Ordinals. 

17. Ordinals denote in what order the thing consid- 
ered stands in a series. 

Examples. — The first day of the week; the second prize; 
the fourth game of chess ; the thirtieth State of the Union. 

Remark. — The ordinals, except first and second, are formed 
from the cardinals — thus: third (Old English thride) from 
three; fourth from four; fifth from five; etc. First ( Anglo- 
Saxon fyrest) = foremost ; second (Latin secundus)=folloiving a 

III. Multiplicatives. 

18. Multiplicatives denote how many fold the object is. 

Examples. — A tivofold nature ; twofold leaves ; a threefold 
cord ; a fourfold division ; etc. 

Remark I. — The multiplicatives are formed by singly add- 
ing fold to any cardinal numeral. 

Remark 2. — The multiplicatives twofold, fourfold, sixfold, 
etc., are to be carefully distinguished from the numeral ad- 
verbs twice, thrice, four times, etc. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write a Scheme of Numeral Adjectives. 

2. Write three sentences containing Cardinals. 
3 Write three sentences containing Ordinals. 

4. Write three sentences containing Multiplicatives. 



108 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR 



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ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: COMPARISON. 109 



II. COMPARISON. 

20. Descriptive or qualifying adjectives undergo cer- 
tain changes in form to express degrees of comparison. 

21. There are three degrees of comparison : I. The 
Positive Degree; II. The Comparative Degree; 
III. The Superlative Degree. 

22. The Positive Degree of an adjective denotes the 
simple or absolute quality expressed by the word; and 
the form of the adjective used to express this degree 
is the adjective itself 

Examples. — A red apple; a long journey; a rainy day; an 
impenetrable forest. 

Here the adjectives express the simple or absolute qualities 
denoted by the words " red," " long," " rainy," " impenetrable ; " 
and the forms of the words are the same as those found in the 
dictionary. 

23. The Comparative Degree of an adjective denotes 
a higher or lower degree of the quality than that ex- 
pressed by the positive degree. 

Examples. — A clearer view; a longer journey ; a calmer 
frame of mind ; a more wonderful occurrence ; a less hopeful 
prospect; etc. 

24. The Superlative Degree of an adjective expresses 
the highest or lowest degree of the quality denoted by 
the positive. 

Examples. — The ividest prairie; the greatest courage; the 
noblest purpose ; the most exalted patriotism ; the least objec- 
tionable measure; etc. 



110 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

METHODS OF FORMING THE COMPARATIVE. 

25. The comparative degree is formed in one of three 
ways: 

1 . By adding r or er to the positive — thus : tall, tall-er; near, 
near-er; black, black -er; bold, bold-er; large, large -r; fine, 
fine-r; pure, pure-?*; etc. 

Remark I. — Nearly all monosyllabic adjectives form their 
comparatives in the manner just given. 

Remark 2. — If the monosyllabic adjective ends in a single 
consonant preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is 
repeated before the ending — thus: thin, thin-ner; wet, wet-ter; 
mad, mad-der; slim, slim-raer; etc. 

Remark 3. — If the adjective ends in y, the y is generally 
changed into i before er, in forming the comparative — thus: 
dry, dri-er; happy, happi-er; silly, silli-er; etc. 

2. By placing the word more before the positive degree — 
thus: content, more content; faithful, more faithful; prudent, 
more prudent ; disconsolate, more disconsolate ; interesting, more 
interesting; etc. 

Remark I. — All polysyllables (except dissyllables ending in 
y, le, ow, or er) form their comparatives in the manner just 
given. 

Remark 2. — Dissyllables ending in y, le, ow, or er, generally 
form their comparatives according to the first method — thus: 
easy, easi-er; funny, funni-er; able, able-r; shallow, shal- 
low -er; tender, tender -er; etc. 

Remark 3. p— Monosyllabic adjectives sometimes form their 
comparatives according to the second method — thus: apt, 
more apt; fit, more fit; near, more near; etc. 

3. By placing the word less before the positive degree — 
thus: humble, less* humble; roomy, less roomy; worthy, less 
worthy; honorable, less honorable; etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: COMPARISON. Ill 

METHODS OF FORMING THE SUPERLATIVE. 

26. The formation of the superlative degree is anal- 
ogous to that of the comparative; that is,- — 

1. By the addition of st or est to the positive — thus: calm, 
calm-e^; strong, strong -eat; high, high- est; pale, pale-s£; 
fine, tine -st; tame, taine-s£; red, red-dest; thin, thin -nest; 
easy, e&si-est; happy, happi-es£; shallow, shallow -est; etc. 

2. By placing most before the positive degree — thus: noble, 
most noble ; disgraceful, most disgraceful ; terrible, most terri- 
ble; fanatical, most fanatical; etc. 

3. By placing least before the positive degree — thus: hurt- 
ful, least hurtful ; promising, least promising ; transparent, 
least transparent; etc. 

Remark I. — The method of comparing adjectives by means 
of er and est, and the method by means of more and most, 
differ from each other in form only, and not in sense. 

Remark 2. — That form of comparison which is effected by 
adding r, er, st, and est, or by prefixing more and most, to the 
positive degree, is called Ascending Comparison. 

Remark 3. — That form of comparison which is effected by 
prefixing less and least to the positive degree is called Descend- 
ing Comparison. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Illustrate Ascending Comparison with five examples. 

2. Illustrate Descending Comparison with five examples. 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

27. Many common adjectives form their comparative 
and superlative degrees in an irregular manner. The 
following is a list of such adjectives: 



112 



ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 



TABLE OF IRREGUAR COMPARISON. 



Positive. 

Good, 1 
Well, | 
Bad, 1 
Evil, L 

HI, J 
Many, 1 
Much, J 

Little, 

Far, 

[Forth,] 

Hind, 

Late, 

Near, 

Nigh, 
Neath, 

Old, 
Out, 
Up, 



Comparative. 

Better, 
Worse, 

More, 

f Less, 

[ Lesser, 
Farther, 
Further, 
Hinder, 
Later, 
Latter, 

Nearer, 

Nigher, 

Nether, 
f Older, 
\ Elder, 

Outer, 
Utter, 

Upper, 



Superlative. 

Best. 

Worst. 

Most. 

Least. 

Farthest. 

Furthest. 

Hindmost. 

Latest, 

Last. 
f Nearest, 
| Next, 
f Nighest, 
1 Next. 

Nethermost. 

Oldest, 

Eldest. 
f Outmost, 
-! Utmost, 
[ Uttermost. 

Upmost. 



Remark I. — The comparative better and the superlative best, 
when derived from good, refer to the qualities of things; better 
and best, derived from well, refer to the relations of things, or 
to health. Etymologically, better and best are derived from 
the Anglo-Saxon bet, meaning good. 

Remark 2. — Worse and worst (comparative and superlative 
of bad) are derived from the Anglo-Saxon weor, meaning evil. 

Remark 3. — Farther and farthest are used to denote the 
relative distances of the objects to which they are applied; 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: COMPAKISON. 113 

as, Milwaukee is farther north than Chicago ; the farthest bor- 
ders of the prairie, etc. Further and furthest are used of ideal 
considerations ; as, the further discussion of the subject ; the 
farthest stretch of the imagination ; etc. 

Remark 4. — Latter and last are used in opposition to former 
and first ; later and latest are said of things in respect to time. 

Remark 5. — The comparative elder and the superlative eld- 
est are used of men and ivomen ; older and oldest, of things. 

28. Certain descriptive adjectives do not admit of com- 
parison. These are: 

1. Such as have no degrees in meaning. 

Examples. — Round, square, oblong, triangular, perpendic- 
ular, spherical, dead, asleep, etc. 

2. Such as have a positive form but a superlative meaning. 

Examples. — All -wise, infinite, supreme, endless, everlasting, 
perfect, universal, omnipresent, etc. 

29. Certain adjectives, derived from Latin, are used 
only in the comparative degree. 

Examples. — Anterior, inferior, superior, junior, senior, pos- 
terior, prior, preferable, etc. 

Remark. — In construction these comparatives are followed 
by to instead of than. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write ten Adjectives with Comparison by First Method. 

2. Write five Adjectives with Comparison by Second Method. 

3. Write five Adjectives with Comparison by Third Method. 

4. Write ten Adjectives with Irregular Comparison. 

5. Write three sentences containing Adjectives that do not 

admit of Comparison. 
10 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

III. PARSING. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE ADJECTIVE. 

30. The order of parsing an adjective is: 

1. An Adjective, and why; 

2. Descriptive or Definitive, and why ; and if Descriptive, 

3. Degree of Comparison, and why; 

4. Comparison. 

5. Descriptive or Definitive of what noun; and, 

6. A Rule of Syntax. 

» MODEL FOR PARSING THE ADJECTIVE. 

I. Honest men love labor. 

Honest is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its 
meaning; descriptive, because it describes the noun to 
which it belongs; in the positive degree, denoting the 
quality in a simple or absolute manner: positive honest, 
comparative more honest, superlative most honest; describ- 
ing the noun "men," according to a rule of syntax wilich 
requires that an adjective shall describe or define some 
noun or pronoun. 

II. On that street we met ten men. 

That is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its mean- 
ing; definitive, because it designates or defines the noun 
to which it belongs; pronominal, having the form of a 
pronoun ; without comparison ; limiting the noun " street,' 7 
according to a rule of syntax which requires that an ad- 
jective shall describe or limit some noun or pronoun. 

Ten is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its mean- 
ing; definitive, because it limits the noun to which it be- 
longs; numeral, designating number; without comparison ; 
defining the meaning of the noun "men," according to a 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: PAUSING. 115 

rule of syntax which requires that an adjective shall de- 
scribe or define some noun or pronoun. 

III. The object of grammar is twofold. 

The is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its mean- 
ing; definitive, because it limits the noun to which it be- 
longs ; the Definite Article, pointing out a specific object ; 
without comparison; limiting the meaning of the noun 
"object," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

Twofold is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its 
meaning ; definitive, because it limits the noun to which it 
belongs; a multiplicative numeral, denoting how many 
fold the thing is ; without comparison ; limiting the mean- 
ing of the noun "object," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

IV. The Mississippi is the grandest river of the West. 

Grandest is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its 
meaning; descriptive, because it describes the noun to 
which it belongs; in the superlative degree, denoting the 
quality in the highest sense: positive grand, comparative 
grander, superlative grandest; describing the noun "river," 
according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

V. Clay was a better orator than Calhoun. 

Better is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its 
meaning; descriptive, because it describes the noun to 
which it belongs; in the comparative degree, denoting 
the quality in a relative sense; irregular; positive good, 
comparative better, superlative best; describing the noun 
"orator," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

VI. The roaring storm swept through the shattered forest. 

Roaring is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its 
meaning; descriptive, because it describes the noun to 
which it belongs; participial, being a form of the verb 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

roar; in the positive degree; but without comparison ; * de- 
scribing the noun "storm," etc. 

Shattered is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its 
meaning; descriptive, etc.; participial, being a form of the 
verb shatter; in the positive degree, but without compari- 
son; describing the noun "forest," etc. 

VII. Tom is a less successful student than Charley. 

Less successful is an adjective, etc. ; in the comparative degree, 
denoting the quality in a relative sense : positive successful, 
comparative less successful, superlative least successful, etc. 

VIII. Some men aspire to greatness ; other men, to folly. 

Some is an adjective, being joined to a noun to modify its 
meaning; definitive, because it limits the noun to which 
it belongs; pronominal, having the form of a pronoun; 
indefinite, pointing out an object in a general manner; 
without comparison; limiting the meaning of the noun 
"men," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

Other is an adjective, etc. (Parsed like "some.") 



ABRIDGED MODEL FOR PARSING THE ADJECTIVE. 

I. The balmy spring brings back the flowers. 

Balmy is an adjective; descriptive; in the positive degree; de- 
scribing the noun "spring." 

II. Those trees were once but tender shoots. 

Those is an adjective; definitive; pronominal; without com- 
parison; limiting the noun "trees." 

Tender is an adjective; descriptive; in the positive degree; 
describing the noun "shoots." 



♦Generally, the participial adjectives do not admit of comparison. Sometimes, 
however, a comparison of participials with more and most is permissible. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADJECTIVE: PASSING. 117 



EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Parse all the Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives in the fol- 
lowing exercises : * 

1. The silent moon ascends the starry sky. 

2. The merry birds at early dawn awake. 

3. The weary traveler seeks a quiet rest. 

4. The echoing hills gave back the bugle's note. 

5. How many unkept promises and broken vows there are! 

6. Ancient history is, for the greater part, a story filled 
with wildest fables and legends most incredible. 

7. I turned again to the vision which I had been so long 
contemplating; but instead of the rolling tide, the arched 
bridge, and the happy islands, I saw nothing hut the long, 
low valley of Bagdad. — Addison. 

8. The hopeful mind and faithful heart 
Shall win and keep the better part. 

9. That cottage home upon yon sloping hill, 
With wicket gate and humble door, I see. 

r 

10. These days at school will pass, 

And other days, with weighty cares, will come, 
And many trials for us all, alas ! 
And grief for some. 

,11. The sun that brief December day 
Rose cheerless over hills of gray, 
And, darkly circled, gave at noon 
A sadder light than waning moon. — Whittier. 

12. Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. — Milton. 

13. Some village Hampden that, with dauntless breast, 

The little tyrant of his fields withstood ; 
Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest, 
Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood.— Gray. 



♦Nouns and Pronouns according to the Abridged Model. 



118 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE VERB. 
I. CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Principle. — Action or being may be predicated* of 
an) 7 subject of thought. 

2. Any word which predicates action or being of a sub- 
ject of thought is a Verb. 

1. All verbs which predicate action of a subject are called 
Active Verbs. 

2. That verb which predicates being of any subject is called 
the Substantive Verb. 

3. An examination of active verbs will show — 

1. That the action expressed by the verb sometimes ter- 
minates in an object. Verbs of this kind are called Transitive 
Verbs. 

2. That the action expressed by the verb sometimes ter- 
minates (that is, ceases) with the subject of the verb. Verbs 
of this kind are called Intransitive Verbs. 

Remark I. — Many verbs belong alike to both classes; that is, 
they are sometimes transitive, and sometimes intransitive; as, — 

1 ( He ran as fast as he could (verb in trans.) ; 

1 He ran a thorn into his thumb (verb trans.). 
2 > f The waves break into foam (verb intrans.); 

1 The waves break the ships to pieces (verb trans.). 



* To predicate means to affirm or deny. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEEB: CLASSIFICATION. 119 

3 f The lady read aloud to the company (verb intrans.) ; 
1 The lady read the poem to the company (verb trans.). 

Remark 2. — An intransitive verb may become transitive by 
placing after it an object of like meaning with itself. 

Examples. — 1. He dreamed a dream that night. 

2. He thought brave thoughts as he sat alone. 

3. He ran a race and won it. 

4. He smiled a melancholy smile. 

5. The hero lives a life heroic. 

Remark 3. — The object of a transitive verb is always a 
noun or some word used as a noun. 

4. Transitive verbs differ from intransitive verbs in re- 
spect to the completeness of the thought which they express. 

1. Transitive verbs express incomplete thoughts, and require 
an object to develop the sense. 

Examples.— 1. Henry shot Shot what? Henry shot 

a squirrel. 

2. The boys frightened Frightened what? The boys 

frightened the horses. 

3. The student wrote Wrote what? The student wrote 

an essay. 

Here the nouns " squirrel,' 7 " horses," and " essay, " are the 
objects of the verbs "shot," "frightened," and "broke," and 
are necessary to complete the meaning of the sentences. 

II. Most intransitive verbs are complete in sense, requiring 
no object to develop the meaning. 

Examples. — 1. The sea roars, and the thunder rumbles. 

2. The gypsies encamped here. 

3. The sun set, and the moon rose in the east. 

Here the verbs "roars," "rumbles," "encamped," "set," and 
"rose," express complete thoughts, and nothing is required to 
develop the meaning of the sentences. 



120 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

III. Many intransitive verbs require a complement ( not an 
object) to complete the meaning of sentences. 

Examples. — 1. The flowers appear Appear ivhat or 

how? The flowers appear beautiful. 

2. The boy became Became tvhatf The boy became a 

man. 

3. The violets look meek and smell sweet. 

Here the adjectives "beautiful," "meek," and "sweet," and 
the noun "man," are the complements of the intransitive verbs. 

EXEECISES. 

I. Classify the Verbs in the following sentences : 

1. He runs. 2. The stars shine. 3. The mason builds a 
wall. 4. The lark sings. 5. The trees wave their branches. 
6. The man lost his way. 7. The boy is here. 8. The deer 
took the alarm and fled. 

II. 1. Write and classify twenty Active Verbs. 

2. Write ten sentences containing Transitive Verbs. 

3. Write ten sentences containing Intransitive Verbs. 

4. Write three sentences requiring Complements. 

5. Active verbs differ very greatly in the intensity 
of the action expressed by them. 

1. Some verbs express intense activity; as, to run, to fly, to 
strike, to beat, to sob, to struggle, etc. 

2. Other verbs express moderate activity; as, to give, to re- 
ceive, to show, to ask, to think, to see, to hold, to calculate, etc. 

3. Other verbs express feeble activity; as, to sit, to stand, 
to dream, to sleep, to appear, to seem, to become, to exists etc. 



* From the very feeble activity denoted by such verbs as to become, to exist, etc., 
some grammarians have represented them as expressing a state or condition. But 
they clearly denote action, and are therefore active verbs. No verb can express a 
state except the verb to be. v 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE VERB: CLASSIFICATION. 121 

6. A few verbs are associated with other verbs to 
assist in conjugation, and are called Auxiliary Verbs.* 

Examples- — 1. The speaker will arrive this afternoon. 

2. The May- month's blossoms have faded. 

3. The essay must fill two pages. 

4. The work should have been done by noonday. 

In these examples the verbs "will/ 7 "have," "must," and 
"should have been," are used as auxiliaries of the principal 
verbs "arrive," "faded," "fill," and "done." 

Remark I. — Some of the auxiliary verbs have no other office 
than that of auxiliaries. These are: 



sent Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


May, 


Might. 


Shall, 


Should. 


Can, 


Could. 


Must, 





Remark 2. — The verbs to will, to have, to do, to be, and to 
let, with their derived forms, are sometimes used as principal 
verbs and sometimes as auxiliaries. 

7. There is but one substantive verb; namely, the 
verb to be. 

Remark. — The uses of the substantive verb are so many and 
various as to constitute it a class by itself. 



8. The substantive verb is used — I. As a Copula; 
II. As an Auxiliary; III. As a Principal Verb. 

1. As a copula, the substantive verb asserts something of 
some other thing. 

2. As an auxiliary, it aids in forming the voice of verbs or 
the tenses of some verb to which it is joined. 

3. As a principal verb, it expresses independent existence. 



*For the meaning of " conjugation," see page 134. 



122 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES OF THE VERB "TO BE" AS A COPULA. 

1. Thomas is a student. 

2. Good men are generally brave. 

3. Magellan was a bold navigator. 

4. Few orators have been the equals of Cicero. 

In the first sentence the student -character is attributed to 
" Thomas' 7 by the copula is; in the second sentence the quality 
of bravery is attributed to "good men" by the copula are, etc. 

EXAMPLES OF THE AUXILIARY "TO BE." 

1. The lesson is studied by the boys. 

2. The beggar is asking for bread. 

3. The seat was taken by a stranger. 

4. The forest has been destroyed by a tornado. 

Here the verbs "is," "was," and "has been," are auxiliaries 
of the verbs "studied," "asking," "taken," and "destroyed." 

EXAMPLES. OF THE VERB "TO BE," INDEPENDENT. 

1. Troy was j but is no more. 

2. Time shall be no longer. 

3. Whatever is, is right. 

Here the verbs "was," "is," "shall be," and "is" (first 
"is" in third example) are principal verbs. 

Remark. — The above classification of verbs is determined by 
their uses. 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Write five sentences containing Auxiliary Verbs. 

2. Write three sentences containing the Copula Verb. 

3. Write three sentences containing the Substantive Verb as 
an Auxiliary. 

4. Write three sentences containing the Substantive Verb 
as a Principal Verb. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEEB: CLASSIFICATION. 123 

9. Verbs may also be classified according to form: 

1. Sometimes verbs form their past tenses and past parti- 
ciples by adding d or ed to the present tense;* as, — 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 

I love, I loved, Loved. 

I walk, I walked, Walked. 

I believe, I believed, Believed. 

Verbs of this kind are called Regular Verbs. 

2. Many verbs form their past tenses and past participles by 
some change (generally a vowel change) in the form of the 
present tense; as, — 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


I write, 


I wrote, 


Written. 


I run, 


I ran, 


Bun. 


I think, 


I thought, 


Thought. 


I am, 


I was,t 


Been. 


Verbs of this kind 


are called Irregular 


Verbs. 


Remark. — Some verbs have both the regular and the irreg- 


ular form; as, — 


- 




Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


f I dream, 
I I dream, 


I dreamed, 


Dreamed; or, 


I dreamt, 


Dreamt 


f I build, 
1 1 build, 


I builded, 


Builded; or, 


I buil£, 


Buitt. 


f I wake, 
I I wake, 


I waked, 


Waked; or, 


I woke, 


Woke. 



10, A few verbs can have subjects only in the third 
person, singular number. 



*For the meaning of "present tense" and "past tense," see page 132. 
t "Was" and "been "are distinct words, not derived from "am." 



124 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

Examples. — 1. It rained for three months. 

2. It cleared off next morning. 

3. It bleiv and stor?ned incessantly. 
4/ It behooves us to be frugal. 

Verbs of this kind are called Unipersonal or Impersonal Verbs. 



II. PROPERTIES. 

I. VOICE. 

11. Principle I. — The action expressed by an active 
verb may be either exerted or received by the subject. 

12. That modification of an active verb which de- 
notes whether the action is exerted or received by the 
subject is called Voice. 

1. That form of the verb which shows that the action is ex- 
erled by the subject is called the Active Voice. 

Examples. — 1. The man went to the city. 

2. The river flows through the valley. 

3. The engineer rang the bell, and the train started. 

Here the verbs "went," "flows,' 7 "rang,' 7 and " started, 77 are 
of such form as to denote that the actions expressed by them 
are exerted by their subjects. 

II. That form of the verb which denotes that the action is 
received by the subject is called the Passive Voice. 

Examples. — 1. The boy ivas injured by the fall. 

2. The bridge has been destroyed by the flood. 

3. The best men should be chosen for office. 

Here the verbs "was injured, " "has been destroyed, 77 and 
"should be chosen, 77 are of such form as to denote that the 
actions expressed by them are received by their subjects. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VERB: PROPERTIES. 125 

Remark I. — In a few cases the actions expressed by verbs 
are both exerted and received by their subjects. Such verbs 
are followed by the reflexive personal pronouns (himself, her- 
self, itself, etc.), and are called Reflexive Verbs. 

Examples. — 1. The hunter shot himself by accident. 
2. The girl hid herself behind the rose-bush. 

Remark 2. — Voice properly belongs to active transitive verbs 
only. Intransitive verbs have no forms for the passive A^oice. 

Remark 3. — A few intransitive verbs have a passive form 
with an active meaning. 

Examples. — 1. The time for action is come = has come. 
2. Before the moon is risen ( = has risen ) we must start. 

EXERCISES. 

1. State the Voice of the verbs in Exercises on page 76. 

2. Write five sentences containing verbs in the Active Voice. 

3. Write five sentences containing verbs in the Passive Voice. 



II. MODE. 

13. Principle 2. — The form of a verb may indicate 
the manner of the action expressed by it. 

14. That modification of a verb which denotes the 
manner of the action expressed by it is called Mode. 

The first manner in which action or being may be expressed 
by a verb is that of simple declaration. 

15. That form of a verb which simply declares an 
action or state of being, is called the Indicative Mode. 

Examples. — 1. Spring brings us her wealth of flowers. 
2. The letter ivas lost from the mail. 

Here "brings" and "was lost" are in the indicative mode. 



126 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Remark I. — Direct questions, though not in the declarative 
form, are generally in the indicative mode. 

Examples. — 1. Has the boy returned from school? 
2. Did he win the prize fairly ? 

Here the verbs "has returned' J and "did win" are in the 
indicative mode. 

Remark 2. — The verbs used in exclamatory sentences are 
generally in the indicative mode. 

Exampl.es. — 1. How vainly strove the swimmer! 
2. What massive walls the builders built in Rome ! 

Here the verbs "strove" and "built" are in the indicative 
mode. 

16. That form of a verb which expresses an action 
or state of being, not as a fact, but as conceived by the 
mind, is called the Subjunctive Mode. 

Examples. — 1. If the clouds rained wool, broadcloth would 
be plentiful. 

2. If I had time, I would answer his letter. 

3. Were he an honest man, he would keep his word. 

In these examples the verbs in the italicized clauses express 
actions or states of being merely as conceived by the mind — not 
as facts. All such verbs are in the subjunctive mode. 

Remark I. — The word "subjunctive" means joined to in a 
subordinate sense. 

Remark 2. — The subjunctive mode is introduced by the fol- 
lowing conjunctions: if, though, except, unless, lest, and that. 

Remark 3. — Sometimes the conjunction is omitted, and in 
that case the parts of the verb are transposed — thus: Had I 
known it = If I had known it ; Were he present = If he were 
present; etc. 

Remark 4. — The general purpose of the subjunctive mode is 
to express supposition, doubt, or contingency. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VERB : PROPERTIES. 127 

Remark 5. — The subjunctive mode has, in some of the tenses, 
certain forms of its own ; in the other tenses the forms of the 
indicative are used, preceded by if, unless, etc. 

Examples : 

Present Tense . . J 1# If ne do not 9° (subjunctive form) ; 
(2. If he does not go (indicative form). 

Past Tense If he did not go (indie, and subj. form). 

Future Tense If he will not go (indie, and subj. form). 

Remark 6. — When the indicative form of the verb is used 
to express supposition or doubt, the condition implied is con- 
ceived of as true; when the subjunctive form is used the con- 
dition is conceived of as contingent. 

Examples. — 1. If the statement was denied (and it was), 
why was not the proof presented ? 

2. If the statement be denied (an undetermined matter), we 
will furnish proof. 

In the first example the condition is supposed to be true; in 
the latter, undetermined or contingent. 

17. That form of the verb which expresses power, 
purpose, will, necessity, duty, obligation, etc., is called 
the Potential Mode.* 

Examples. — 1. Men may yet reach the North Pole. 

2. The sunlight should be admitted. 

3. The Union must be preserved. 

Here the verbs "may reach, " " should be admitted, " and 
"must be preserved, 7 ' are in the potential mode. 



♦Properly speaking, the potential mode is not a mode, but only a convenient 
form of expression to denote certain clusters of auxiliaries, infinitives, and par- 
ticiples, which are thrown together according to the idioms of the English lan- 
guage. Under a strict analysis the expression "I might have chosen otherwise" 
comes apart into (1) a principal verb— I might ; (2) an infinitive— jtb have ("to" 
omitted); and (3) a perfect participle objective — chosen. The tendencies of En- 
glish Grammer are to abandon the Latin model and to adopt the view expressed 
in this note. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark I. — The potential mode is formed by prefixing some 
one of the auxiliary verbs— may, might; can, could; shall, should; 
will, would; or must — to the infinitive of the principal verb, 
with the sign to omitted. 

Examples. — 1. I may ran = I may (to) run. 

2. The student must think for himself— must (to) think 
for himself. 

3. The boy could not be patient = could not (to) be patient. 

Remark 2. — The potential mode, like the indicative, may be 
used in interrogative and exclamatory sentences. 

Remark 3. — The auxiliary may, with its past tense might, 
signifies permission, probability, or possibility. In the first 
person these auxiliaries, when used interrogatively, express a 
ivish ; as, May I have the book ? 

Remark 4. — The auxiliary can and its past tense could im- 
ply power or ability in the subject; as, He can ( = is able to) 
accomplish the task. 

Remark 5. — The auxiliary will expresses purpose and de- 
termination; the past tense would denotes purpose, intent, or 
wish. 

Remark 6. — The auxiliary shall denotes obligation and com- 
pulsion ; the past tense should denotes obligation and duty. 

Examples. — 1. I ivill (-am determined to) remain here. 

2. He shall ( = is obliged to) yield to necessity. 

3. We would ( = prefer to) pursue some other plan. 

4. Men should ( = ought to ) uphold good laws. 

Remark 7.— The auxiliary must denotes simple necessity; 
as, All men must die. 

18. That form of the verb which denotes command, 
exhortation, entreaty, 6r permission, is called the Impera- 
tive Mode. 

Examples. — 1. Remember to be present on Tuesday. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VERB: PROPERTIES. 129 

2. Go not in the way of temptation. 

Here the verbs "remember" and "go" are in the impera- 
tive mode. 

Remark I. — From the very nature of command, entreaty, 
etc., it will be seen that the imperative mode will be mostly 
employed in the second person. 

Remark 2. — In its ordinary use the imperative mode em- 
ploys the simplest form of the verb, without an auxiliary — 
the subject -nominative being omitted. 

Examples. — 1. Proceed with the recitation. 
2. Strive to reach the highest rank. 

Here " proceed " and " strive " are the simplest forms of the 
verbs to proceed and to strive. The subject -nominative thou 
or you is omitted after " proceed " and " strive." 

Remark 3. — In the second person the auxiliary do is fre- 
quently employed in the formation of the imperative mode. 

Examples. — 1. Do not rush blindly into danger. 
2. Do thou hold fast the truth. 

Remark 4. — The imperative mode in the first and the third 
person is generally formed by the use of the auxiliary let be- 
fore the infinitive of the principal verb, with to omitted. 

Examples. — 1. Let me move slowly through the street. 
2. Let him command who dares to lead in fight. * 

Remark 5. — In the third person the imperative is sometimes 
formed without let. 



* It will be seen that in the first and third persons, imperative, a personal 
pronoun (me, him, etc.) is inserted between "let" and the principal verb. Most 
grammarians have construed this pronoun as being the object of "let," while 
the subject of "let" is said to be thou understood. Such a construction is cum- 
brous, far-fetched, and illogical. If the expression " Let me reflect" means "Let 
thou me to reflect," then the principal verb becomes second person, and is not 
first person at all. In the expression " Let me reflect " the verb is " Let reflect," 
and the subject is " me," the same being a subject-objective. 



130 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Examples. — 1. Be this disproved, then all the rest is plain. 
2. Come storm or sunshine, faith is still the same. 

19, That form of the verb which expresses the idea 
of the verb in a general sense, without limitation of 
person or number, is called the Infinitive Mode. 

Remark I. — The infinitive mode is formed by placing to be- 
fore the simple form of a verb, or to have before a perfect par- 
ticiple. 

Examples. — To have, to think, to sleep; to have loved, to 
have thought, to have remembered, etc. 

Remark 2. — The general use of the infinitive mode is to 
denote the purpose, aim, or tendency of an action or state of 
being. 

Examples. — 1. He went to Paris to complete his education. 
2. He read the book to satisfy his mind. 

Remark 3. — The infinitive mode is much used as a verbal 
noun, and, as such, is either the subject or the object of a verb.* 

20. Actions and states of being, represented as contin- 
uing or completed, and without reference to a subject, are 
expressed by certain forms of the verb, called Participles. 

The participles are three in number : 

1. The first participle denotes action or being as continuing. 

Examples. — Writing, thinking, being, reciting, etc. 

This form of the verb, always ending with ing, is called the 
Present Participle. 

2. The second participle represents action or being as com- 
pleted in the past. 

Examples. — Loved, remembered, hoped, run, etc. 



*See page 51. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEEB: PKOPEKTIES. 131 

This variation of the verb, generally ending in d or ed, is 
called the Past Participle. 

3. The third participle represents action or being as com- 
pleted at some definite time. 

Examples. — Having loved, having told, having been, etc. 

This form of the verb is called the Perfect Participle. 

Remark. — The word " participle 7 ' means partaking of; and 
this form of the verb is so called because it partakes of the 
nature of the adjective and the noun as well as of the verb. 

EXERCISES. 

1. State the Modes of the verbs in Exercises on page 95. 

2. Write live sentences having verbs in the Indicative Mode. 

3. Illustrate the Subjunctive and Potential Modes with five 
sentences each. 

4. Illustrate the Imperative and Infinitive Modes with two 
sentences each. 

5. Write three sentences containing Participles. 

III. TENSE. 

21. Principle 3. — The form of a verb may indicate 
the time of the action or state of being expressed by it. 

22. That form of a verb which denotes the time of the 
action or state of being expressed by it is called Tense.* 

1. The time of the action or state of being expressed by a verb 
may be— I. Present Time ; II. Past Time ; III. Future Time. 

2. Based on the three divisions of time are three classes of 
tenses : I. Present tenses ; II. Past tenses ; III. Future tenses. 

3. Every action expressed by a verb is either continuous 
action or completed action. 



♦The word "tense" (Latin tempus, French temps) means lime. 



132 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

4. That tense which expresses continuous action in present 
time is called the Present Tense. 

Examples. — I write; You walk; He is running. 

5. That tense which expresses completed action in present 
time is called the Present Perfect Tense. 

Examples. — I have written; You have recited; He has loved. 

6. That tense which expresses continuous or completed ac- 
tion at an indefinite past time is called the Past Tense. 

Examples. — I walked ; You rode ; He remained. 

7. That tense which expresses completed action at a definite 
past time is called the Past Perfect Tense. 

Examples. — I had learned; You had begun; He had come. 

8. That tense which expresses continuous or uncompleted 
action in future time is called the Future Tense. 

Examples. — I shall go; You will return; He will remain. 

9. That tense which expresses completed action at a definite 
future time is called the Future Perfect Tense. 

Examples. — I shall have loved; You will have gone. 

Remark. — These jsix tenses cover all the time -relations of 
thought as it is expressed in the English language. 

exercises. 

1. State the Tenses of the verbs in Exercises on page 117. 

2. Illustrate the six Tenses with two sentences each. 



IV. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

23. Principle 4. — The form of a verb may express 
agreement with its subject m number and person. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE VERB: PROPERTIES. 133 

24. Those changes in form which verbs undergo in 
order to express agreement with the person and num- 
ber of their subjects are called the Number and Person 
of the Verb. 

1. If the subject of a verb is of the singular number, the verb 
is said to be of the singular number. 

2. If the subject of a verb is of the plural number, the verb 
is said to be of the plural number. 

f I walk ; We walk ; 

Example. — \ Thou walk - est ; You walk ; 

L He walk-s. They walk. 

Here the est of the verb "walkest" is to denote agreement 
in person and number with its subject, the pronoun "thou;" 
and the s of the verb "walks" is to denote agreement in per- 
son and number with its subject, the pronoun "he." 

Remark I. — In the case of plural subjects, verbs have no 
changes in form to indicate person and number. 

Note. — In Old English, verbs in the plural ended with en or eth. 

Remark 2. — The person and number of the verb are derived 
properties — not belonging to the verb itself, but to the subject- 
nominative of the verb. 

EXERCISES. 

I. State the Number and Person of the verbs in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. Thou seest. 2. He ran away. 3. They do not believe. 
4. We entered the house. 5. The boy saw a giraffe. 6. The 
poet was honored. 7. Ye have set at nought my counsels. 

II. 1. Write five sentences illustrating the Person and Num- 
ber of verbs. 

2. Illustrate the Second and Third Persons of verbs with 
three examples each. 



134 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

III. CONJUGATION. 

25. The process of forming in regular order the voices, 
modes, and tenses of verbs is called Conjugation. 

Conjugation is effected by placing before the simple form of 
the principal verb, or a participle of the principal verb, certain 
auxiliaries for the successive tenses. 

Examples. — I shall write; I have walked. 

Here the auxiliary "shall" is placed before the simple form 
of the verb " write/ 7 and the auxiliary "have" before the past 
participle "walked." 

METHOD OF FORMING THE MODES AND TENSES. 

Actiye Yoice. 

I. INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — The simple form of the verb, with the endings 
st for the second person, singular, and s or th for the third 
person, singular. 

Present Perfect Tense — The auxiliaries have, hast, has, for the 
singular, and have for the plural, placed before the past 
participle of the principal verb. 

Past Tense — The simple form of the verb, with d or ed added 
and st suffixed to the second person, singular. * 

Past Perfect Tense — The auxiliaries had, hadst, had, for the 
singular, and had for the plural, placed before the past 
participle of the principal verb. 

Future Tense — The auxiliary shall for the first person, singu- 
lar and plural, and the auxiliary will for the second and 
third persons, singular and plural, placed before the simple 
form of the verb. 



* This scheme is for Regular verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB: CONJUGATION. 135 

Future Perfect Tense — The auxiliaries shall have for the first 
person, singular and plural, and tvill have for the second 
and third persons, singular and plural, placed before the 
past participle of the principal verb. 

II. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — 1. The simple form of the verb, preceded by 
if, unless, except, etc. ; or, 2. The corresponding tense of 
the indicative, preceded by if, unless, except, etc. 

Present Perfect Tense — The perfect participle of the verb, pre- 
ceded by the auxiliary have (hast, has) and the conjunc- 
tion if, unless, except, etc. 

Past Tense — 1. The uninflected past tense of the indicative 
mode, preceded by the conjunction if, etc. ; or, 2. The past 
tense of the indicative, with its verbal inflection in second 
person, singular, — preceded in like manner. 

All other Tenses — The corresponding tenses of the indicative 
mode, preceded by the conjunction if, unless, etc. ; or the 
same without inflection in second person, singular 

III. POTENTIAL, MODE. 

Present Tense — The simple form of the verb, preceded by the 
auxiliary may, can, or must 

Present Perfect Tense — The perfect participle of the verb, pre- 
ceded by may have, can have, or must have. 

Past Tense — The simple form of the verb, preceded by the 
auxiliary might, could, would, or should. 

Past Perfect Tense — The perfect participle of the verb, pre- 
ceded by might have, could have, would have, or should 
have. 

Future Tense — The simple form of the verb, preceded by will 
(emphatic) for first person, singular and plural, and shall 
(emphatic) for second and third persons. 



136 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Future Perfect Tense — The perfect participle, preceded by will 
have for first person, singular and plural, and shall have for 
second and third persons, singular and plural. * 

IV. IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — 1. The simple form of the verb, with nomina- 
tive thou, you, or ye (generally understood), for second 
person; or, 2. The simple form of the verb, preceded by 
let for first and third persons, or do for the second person. 

All other tenses wanting. 

V. INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — The simple form of the verb, preceded by to. 

Present Perfect Tense — The perfect participle of the verb, pre- 
ceded by to have. 

All other tenses wanting. 

VI. THE PARTICIPLES. 

Present Tense — The simple form of the verb, with the affix ing 
added according to the rules of orthography. 

Present Perfect Tense — The perfect participle of the principal 
verb, preceded by the present participle having. 

Past Tense — The simple form of the verb, with d or ed added.! 

Passive Voice. 

All Modes and Tenses— The perfect participle of the principal 
verb, preceded by the appropriate tenses of the verb to be. J 



* It is a matter of surprise that many grammarians who recognize should and 
would as proper auxiliaries of the potential mode, seem to forget that shall and 
will, being the present tenses of should and ivould, are also, in the very nature of 
the case, auxiliaries of the same mode. One thing is certain: either the poten- 
tial mode has its regular future tenses, formed with shall and will — the latter 
auxiliary expressing determination, and the former compulsion — or else should 
and ivould are not proper auxiliaries of this mode at all. 

t For past tense of irregular verbs, see Table, page 159. 

X For conjugation, see page 138. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VERB: CONJUGATION. 137 

26. Principle 5. — Verbs may undergo a change in 
form to denote the continuity or emphasis of the ac- 
tion or state of being expressed by them. 

1. That form of the verb which denotes action without re- 
spect to continuity or emphasis, is called the Common Form. 

2. That form of the verb which denotes continuity of action 
without emphasis is called the Progressive Form. 

3. That form of the verb which denotes action with empha- 
sis is called the Emphatic Form. 

Examples of the Common Form. — I write; He walks; 
We go ; They came ; The girls study ; The men conversed ; etc. 

Examples of the Progressive Form. — I am writing; 
He is walking ; We are going ; They were coming ; The girls 
are studying ; The men were conversing ; etc. 

Examples of the Emphatic Form.— I do write ; He does 
walk; We do go; They did come; The girls do study; The 
men did converse ; etc. 

Remark I. — It will be seen that the progressive form of the 
verb is produced by placing some part of the verb to be before 
the present participle of a principal verb. 

Remark 2. — The emphatic form is produced by placing some 
part of the verb to do before the simple form of the verb. 

Remark 3. — The emphatic form of the verb occurs only in 
the present and the past tense. In all the other tenses em- 
phasis is marked, in printing, by Italics, and in speaking, by 
a stress of the voice on the emphatic words — thus: I have 
written ; I shall return ; The man had forgotten his errand. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write three sentences with verbs in the Common Form. 

2. Write three sentences with verbs in the Progressive Form. 

3. Write three sentences with verbs in the Emphatic Form. 

12 



138 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

27. All the forms of the verb are produced from a 
few simple forms called the Principal Parts of the Verb. 

The Principal Parts of the verb are : 

1. The first person, singular number, of the present tense, 
indicative mode. 

2. The first person, singular, of the past tense, indicative. 

3. The present participle. 

4. The past participle. 

Example. — The verb to love: Love, loved, loving, loved. 

Remark. — In all regular verbs the past tense and the past 
participle are identical. In irregular verbs the forms are gen- 
erally different — thus: Wrote, written; ran, run; etc. 

i. the substantive verb "to be." 

Principal Parts. 

Present — Am or be; Past — Was; Present Participle— Being; 
Past Participle — Been. 

Indicative Mode. 



Singular. 


Present 


Tense. 


Plural. 


I am, 






We are, 


Thou art, 






You are,* 


He is; 






They are. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

I have been, We have been, 

Thou hast been, You have been, 

He has been ; They have been. 



*The form "you are" is used for the second person, singular, as well as the 
second person, plural, except in solemn style and in the form of speech employed 
by the Society of Friends. See page 83. 



ETYMOLOGY. -THE VERB: CONJUGATION. 139 



Singular. 

I was, 
Thou wast, 
He was; 



Past Tense. 



Plural. 

We were, 
You were, 
They were. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

I had been, We had been ? 

Thou hadst been, You had been, 

He had been ; They had been. 



Future Tense. 



I shall be,* 
Thou wilt be, 
He will be; 



We shall be, 
You will be, 
They will be. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

I shall have been, We shall have been, 

Thou wilt have been, You will have been, 

He will have been ; They will have been. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



Present Tense. 



If I be or. am,? 
If thou be or art, 
If he be or is ; 



If we be or are, 
If you be or are, 
If they be or are. 



♦The general rule is that shall is the proper auxiliary for the first person and 
will for the second and third persons. These auxiliaries, so used, express simple 
futurity. There are several variations from this rule, but they are so subtile as 
to belong to the philosophy of language rather than to a treatise on grammar. 
Shall and will, denoting determination and compulsion, belong to the potential 
mode, not the indicative. 

tThe true subjunctive "if I be" expresses the hypothesis of doubt or uncer- 
tainty: the indicative form "if I am " expresses the presumptive hypothesis, taking 
the condition for granted as true. The tendency in the English language is to use 
the presumptive hypothesis, and not the hypothesis of doubt. 



140 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I have been, If we have been, 

If thou have or hast been, If you have been, 

If he have or has been ; If they have been. 

Past Tense. 
If I were or was, If we were, 

If thou were, wert, or wast, If you were, 

If he were or was ; If they were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

If I had been, If we had been, 

If thou had or hadst been/- If you had been, 

If he had been ; If they had been. 

Future Tense. 

If I shall be, If we shall be, 

If thou will or wilt be, If you will be, 

If he will be ; If they will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

If I shall have been, If we shall have been, 

If thou will or wilt have been, If you will have been, 

If he will have been ; If they will have been. 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 
I may be,t We may be, 

Thou mayst be, You may be, 

He may be ; They may be. 



* The form "if thou had been " is very rare in Modern English. 

fin all tenses where "may" is used, can or must may be substituted as the 
auxiliary; and where "might" occurs, could, would, or should, may be used in- 
stead. In like manner can have or must have may be used for "may have," and 
could have, etc., for "might have." 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VERB: CONJUGATION. 141 

Present Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

I may have been, We may have been, 

Thou mayst have been, You may have been, 

He may have been ; They may have been. 

Past Tense* 

I might be, We might be, 

Thou mightst be, You might be, 

He might be ; They might be. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

I might have been, We might have been, 

Thou mightst have been, You might have been, 

He might have been ; They might have been. 

Future Tense. 

I will be, We will be, 

Thou shalt be, You shall be, 

He shall be ; They shall be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

I will have been, We will have been, 

Thou shalt have been, You shall have been, 

He shall have been ; They shall have been. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Let me be, Let us be, [you be, 

Be thou, or do thou be, Be ye or you, or do ye or 

Let him be; Let them be. 



*In the past potential there is a conflict between Logic and Grammar. Logic 
indicates that the tense should be called present or future; for the action expressed 
by the tense is generally present or future. Grammar, which has to do with the 
forms of language, indicates that the tense should be called "jiast tense; " for the 
auxiliaries "might," "could," "would," etc., are undoubtedly past tenses. 



142 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present— To be ; Present Perfect— To have been. 

Participles. 
Present — Being ; Past — Been ; Present Perfect — Having been. 

28. An abridged conjugation of the verb is produced 
by giving only the first person, singular number, of each 
of the tenses. Such an abridgment is called a Synopsis.* 

synopsis of the verb "to be." 

Indicative Mode. 

Present .... I am ; Past Per, . I had been ; 

Pres. Per. . I have been ; Future ... I shall be ; 

Past I was ; Put. Per. . I shall have been. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present ... If I be or am ; Past Per. . If I had been ; 

Pres. Per. . If I have been ; Future ... If I shall be ; 

Past If I were or was ; Fut. Per. . If I shall have been. 

Potential Mode. 

Present ... I may be ; Past Per. . I might have been ; 

Pres. Per. . I may have been ; Future ... I will be ; 

Past I might be ; Fut. Per. . I will have been. 

Imperative Mode. 
Present — Let me be, etc. 

* After practice, the student should give the Synopsis only. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB: CONJUGATION. 143 

II. THE REGULAR VERB " TO LOVE." 

Active Voice. 

Principal Parts. 

Present — Love ; Past — Loved ; Present Participle — Loving ; 
Past Participle — Loved. 



Singular. 

I love, 
Thou lovest, 
He loves; 



Indicative Mode. 



Present Tense. 



Plural. 

We love, 
You love, 
They love. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



I have loved, 
Thou hast loved, 
He has loved; 



We have loved, 
You have loved, 
They have loved. 



I loved, 
Thou lovedst, 
He loved; 



Past Tense. 



We loved, 
You loved, 
They loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



I had loved, 
Thou hadst loved, 
He had loved ; 



We had loved, 
You had loved, 
They had loved. 



I shall love, 
Thou wilt love, 
He will love; 



Future Tense. 



We shall love, 
You will love, 
They will love. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall have loved, We shall have loved, 

Thou wilt have loved, You will have loved, 

He will have loved ; They will have loved. 

Subjunctive Mode.* 

Present Tense. 
If I love, If we love, 

If thou love or lovest, If you love, 

If he love or loves ; If they love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

If I have loved, If we have loved, 

If thou have or hast loved, If you have loved, 

If he have or has loved ; If they have loved. 

Past Tense. 
If I loved, If we loved, 

If thou loved or lovedst, If you loved, 

If he loved ; If they loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

If I had loved, If we had loved, 

If thou had or hadst loved, If you had loved, 

If he had loved ; If they had loved. 

Future Tense. 
If I shall love, If we shall love, 

If thou will or wilt love, If you will love, 

If he will love ; If they will love. 



*The subjunctive form of conjugation may, of course, be carried on through 
the potential mode by prefixing "if" to the several tenses of that mode — thus: 
If I may love; if I may have loved ; if I might love ; if I might have loved ; etc. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE VEKB: CONJUGATION. 145 
Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I shall have loved, If we shall have loved, 

If thou will or wilt have loved, If you will have loved, 

If he will have loved ; If they will have loved. 

Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 

I may love, We may love, 

Thou mayst love, You may love, 

He may love ; They may love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

I may have loved, We may have loved, 

Thou mayst have loved, You may have loved, 

He may have loved ; They may have loved. 

Past Tense. 
I might love, We might love, 

Thou mightst love, You might love, 

He might love; They might love. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

I might have loved, We might have loved, 

Thou mightst have loved, You might have loved, 

He might have loved ; They might have loved. 

Future Tense. 

I will love,* We will love, 

Thou shalt love, You shall love, 

He shall love; They shall love. 



* The future tenses of the potential are always uttered with a strong emphasis 
on the auxiliary— thus: I will go; He shall obey; etc. The reference is not to 
the futurity of the action, but to determination and will. 
13 



146 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I will have loved, We will have loved, 

Thou shalt have loved, You shall have loved, 

He shall have loved ; They shall have loved. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Let ma love, Let us love, 

Love thou or do thou love, Love ye or you, 

Let him love; Let them love. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present — To love; Present Perfect — To have loved. 

Participles. 
Present — Loving ; Past — Loved ; Present Perfect — Having loved. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

Indicative Mode. 
Present — I love ; Present Perfect — I have loved ; etc. 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present — If I love ; Present Perfect — If I have loved ; etc. 

Potential. Mode. 
Present — I may love ; Present Perfect — I may have loved ; etc. 

Imperative Mode. 
Present — Let me love, etc. 

EXERCISES. 

Conjugate the Regular verbs : Walk, believe, hope, trust. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB : CONJUGATION. 147 
III. THE IRREGULAR VERB "TO SEE." 

Principal. Parts. 
Pres. — See; Past— Saw; Pres. Part. — Seeing ; Past Part. — Seen. 



Indicative Mode. 



Singular. 

I see, 

Thou seest, 
He sees; 



Present Tense. 



Plural. 

We see, 
You see, 
They see. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

I have seen, We have seen, 

Thou hast seen, You have seen, 

He has seen ; They have seen. 



I saw, 

Thou sawest, 
He saw; 



Past Tense. 



We saw, 
You saw, 
They saw. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

I had seen, We had seen, 

Thou hadst seen, You had seen, 

He had seen ; They had seen. 



Future Tense. 



I shall see, 
Thou wilt see, 
He will see; 



We shall see, 
Xou will see, 
They will see. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

I shall have seen, We shall have seen, 

Thou wilt have seen, You shall have seen, 

He will have seen ; They shall have seen. 



148 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

If I see, If we see, 

If thou see or seest, If you see, 

If he see or sees ; If they see. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

If I have seen, If we have seen, 

If thou have or hast seen, If you have seen, 

If he have or has seen ; If they have seen. 

Past Tense. 

If I saw, If we saw, 

If thou saw or sawest, If you saw, 

If he saw ; If they saw. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

If I had seen, If we had seen, 

If thou had or hadst seen, If you had seen, 

If he had seen ; If they had seen. 

Future Tense. 

If I shall see, If we shall see, 

If thou will or wilt see, If you will see, 

If he will see ; If they will see. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

If I shall have seen, If we shall have seen, 

If thou will or wilt have seen, If you will have seen, 

If he will have seen ; If they will have seen. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE VERB: CONJUGATION. 149 



SlXGULAR. 

I may see, 
Thou mayst see, 
He may see ; 



Potential Mode. 
Present Tense, 



PLURAIi. 

We may see, 
You may see, 
They may see. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



I may have seen, 
Thou mayst have seen, 
He may have seen ; 



We may have seen, 
You may have seen, 
They may have seen. 



I might see, 
Thou mightst see, 
He might see; 



Past Tense. 



We might see, 
You might see, 
They might see. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



I might have seen, 
Thou mightst have seen, 
He might have seen; 



We might have seen, 
You might have seen, 
They might have seen. 



I will see, 
Thou shalt see, 
He shall see; 



Future Tense. 



We will see, 
You shall see, 
They shall see. 



Future Perfect lense. 



I will have seen, 
Thou shalt have seen, 
He shall have seen; 



We will have seen, 
You shall have seen, 
They shall have seen. 



150 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Imperative Mode. 
Present Tense, 



Let me see, 

See thou, or do thou see, 

Let him see; 



Let us see, 

See ye or you, or do you see, 

Let them see. 



Infinitive Mode. 
Present — To see ; Present Perfect — To have seen. 

Participles. 

Present — Seeing ; Past — Seen ; Present Perfect — Having seen. 
#■ 

Remark. — A synopsis of any irregular verb may be formed 
after the model of the verb "to be" (page 142) by inserting the 
irregular parts in the appropriate tenses — thus : Present — I see ; 
Present Perfect — I have seen; Past — I saw; etc., etc. 

exercises. 

Conjugate the following Irregular verbs: Bring, hear, feel, 
know, speak, think. 



IV. THE REGULAR VERB "TO LOVE.' 



Passive Voice. 



Present Tense, 

I am 
Thou art 
He is 
We are 
You are 
They are . 



loved 



Indicative Mode. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

I have 
Thou hast 
He has 
We have 
You have 
They have . 



- been loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEEB: CONJUGATION. 151 



Past Tense. 


Past Perfect Tense. 


I was 




I had 




Thou wast 




Thou hadst 




He was 
We were 


- loved. 


He had 
We had 


■ been loved 


You were 




You had 




They were 




They had \ 




Future Tense. 


Future Perfect Tense. 


I shall 




I shall ] 


Thou wilt 




Thou wilt 




He will 
We shall 


be loved. 


He will 
We shall 


• have been lo 


You will 




You will 




They will , 




They will , 







Subjunctive Mode. 



Present Tense. 

If I be or am 
If thou be or art 
If he be or is 
If we be or are 
If you be or are 
If they be or are . 



loved 



Present Perfect Tense. 



If I have 




If thou have or hast 




If he have or has 


been 


If we have 


loved 


If you have 




If they have j 





Past Tense. 

If I were or was [wast 
If thou were, wert or 
If he were or was 
If we were 
If you were 
If they were 



Past Perfect Tense. 



loved. 



If I had 








If thou had 


or 


hadst 




If he had 






been 


If we had 






loved 


If you had 








If they had 









152 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Future Tense. 

If I shall 

If thou will or wilt 

If he will 

If we shall 

If you will 

If they will 



Future Perfect Tense. 



be loved. 



If I shall 






If thou will 
If he will 
If we shall 


or wilt 


have 
been 
loved 


If you will 






If they will 







Potential Mode. 
Present Tense. Present Perfect Tense. 



I may 
Thou mayst 
He may 
We may 
You may 
They may 



be loved. 



Past Tense. 



I might 
Thou mightst 
He might 
We might 
You might 
They might 



be loved. 



have been loved. 



I may 
Thou mayst 
He may 
We may 
You may 
They may 



Past Perfect Tense. 

I might 

Thou mightst 

He might have been 

We might loved. 

You might 

They might 



Future Tense. 



I will 
Thou shalt 
He shall 
We will 
You shall 
They shaU J 



be loved. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

I will 

Thou shalt 

He shall 

™ .,, \ have been loved. 

We will 

You shall 

They shall J 



ETYMOLOGY. —THE VEEB: CONJUGATION. 153 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Let me be loved, 

Be thou or do thou be loved, 

Let him be loved, 

Let us be loved^ 

Be ye or you or do you be loved, 

Let them be loved. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present — To be loved; Present Perfect — To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Present — Being loved; Present Perfect — Having been loved; 
Past — Loved. 

Remark. — A synopsis of the verb in the passive voice may 
be made after the model given for the active voice. 

exercises. 

Conjugate the following verbs in the Passive Voice : Believe, 
take, esteem. 



V. THE REGULAR VERB "TO WALK.' 

Progressive Form. 

Indicative Mode. 



Present Tense. 

I am i 
Thou art 
He is 
We are 
You are 
They are 



walking. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

I have 
Thou hast 
He has 
We have 
You have 
They have 



been walking. 



154 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR 



Past Tense. 



I was 
Thou wast 
He was 
We were 
You were 
They were 



walking. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

I had 

Thou hadst 

He had 

w , , \ been walking. 

We had 

You had 
They had 



Future Tense. 



I shall 
Thou wilt 
He will 
We shall 
You will 
They will 



be walking. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

I shall 
Thou wilt 

-™r t; n I- have been walking. 
We shall 

You will 

They will 



Subjunctive Mode. 



Present Tense. 
1 



If I be or am 
If thou be or art 
If he be or is 
If we be or are 
If you be or are 
If they be or are . 



- walking. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



If I have 

If thou have or hast 

If he have or has 

If we have 

If you have 

If they have 



been 
walking. 



Past Tense. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



If I were or was 


[wast ' 




If I had 








If thou were, wert 


or 




If thou had 


or 


hadst 




If he were or was 




walk- 


If he had 






been 


If we were 






" ing. 


If we had 






walking. 


If you were 








If you had 








If they were 




■ 




If they had 




- 





ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB : CONJUGATION. 155 


Future Tense. Future Perfect Tense. 


If I shall 


If I shaU 




If thou will or wilt 


If thou w T ill or wilt 




If he will 


be walk- If he will 


have been 


If we shall 


ing. if we S hall 


walking. 


If you will 


If you will 




If they will 


If they will 





Potential Mode. 
Present Tense. Present Perfect Tense. 



I may 

Thou mayst 
He may 
We may 
You may 
They may 



■ be walking. 



Past Tense. 
1 



I might 
Thou mightst 
He might 
We might 
You might 
They might 



- be walking. 



I may 

Thou mayst 

He may have been 

We may I walking. 

You may 

They may 

Past Perfect Tense. 

I might 

Thou mightst 

He might have been 

We might ' walking. 

You might 

They might 



Future Tense. 



I will 
Thou shalt 
He shall 
We will 
You shall 
They shall 



be walking. 



Future Perfect Tense. 



I will 

Thou shalt 
He shall 
We will 
You shall 
They shall J 



have been 
walking. 



156 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Imperative Mode. 
Present Tense. 

Let me be walking, 

Be thou or do thou be walking, 

Let him be walking, 

Let us be walking, 

Be ye or do you be walking, 

Let them be walking. 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present — To be walking ; Present Perfect — To have been 
walking. 

Participles. 

Present — Walking ; * Past ; Present Perfect — Hav- 
ing been walking. 

EXERCISES. 

Conjugate the following verbs in the Progressive Form: 
Move, play, study, recite. 



VI. THE IRREGULAR VERB "TO TAKE. 

Emphatic Form. 

Indicative Mode. 



Present Tense. 

I do 

Thou dost 
He does 
We do 
You do 
They do 



take. 



Past Tense. 

I did 

Thou didst 
He did 
We did 
You did 
They did 



• take. 



*The present participle expresses continuous action in virtue of its own nature. 
The past participle has no progressive form. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB: CONJUGATION. 157 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Do thou take. Do ye take.* 



VII. THE REGULAR VERB " TO LEARN. 

Negative Form. 

Indicative Mode. 



or, 



Present Tense. 

I learn not, 
Thou learnest not, 
He learns not, 
We learn not, 
You learn not, 
They learn not ; 



Present Perfect Tense. 

I have not learned ; 

Thou hast not learned ; etc., etc. 



Present Tense — 2d Form. 

I do not learn, 
Thou dost not learn, 
He does not learn, 
We do not learn, 
You do not learn, 
They do not learn. 

Past Tense. 

I learned not ; or, 

I did not learn ; etc., etc. 



Infinitive Mode. 
Present— Not to learn ; Present Perfect— Not to have learned. 

Participles. 

Present— Not learning ; Present Perfect — Not having learned ; 
Past — Not learned. 

Remark.— It will be seen that the negative conjugation is 
effected — 

1. By placing "not" after the principal verb when there is 
no auxiliary; 



* For emphatic forms in remaining modes and tenses, see Remark 3, page 137. 



158 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



2. By placing "not" after the first auxiliary, when there is 
one; 

3. By placing "not" before infinitives and participles. 



VIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «TO GIVE." 

Interrogative Form. 



Present Tense, 

Give I? 
Givest thou? 
Gives he? 
Give we? 
Give you ? 
Give they ? 



or, 



Indicative Mode. 
Present — 2d Form. 

' Do I give ? 

Dost thou give ? 

Does he give ? 

Do we give? 

Do you give ? 
I Do they give ? 



or, 



Present — 3d Form. 

Am I giving ? 
Art thou giving? 
Is he giving? 
Are we giving ? 
Are you giving ? 
. Are they giving ? 



Present Perfect Tense. 

Have I given ? or, 
Have I been giving? 
Etc., etc. 

Past Tense. 

Gave I? or, 
Did I give ? or t 
Was I giving? 
Etc., etc. 



Future Tense. 

Shall I give? or, 
Shall I be giving? 
Etc., etc. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Had I given ? or, 
Had I been giving? 
Etc., etc. 



Remark. — The conjugation of the verb in the negative and 
interrogative forms may be continued through the other modes 
according to the analogy of the indicative. 

28. Verbs which form their past tense and past parti- 
ciple in some manner other than by addiug d or ed to 
the simple form of the verb, are called Irregular Verbs. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB: CONJUGATION. 159 



TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


- arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, t awaked, 


awaked, awoke. 


Bear, 


bore, bare, 


borne, t born. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, beat. 


Become, 


became, 


became. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Beget, 


begot, begat, 


begotten, begot. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Belay, 


belaid, 


belaid. 


Bend, 


bent, bended, 


bent, bended. 


Bereave, 


bereft, bereaved, 


bereft, bereaved. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bet, 


bet, betted, 


bet, betted. 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, . 


bled. 


Bless, 


blessed, blest, 


blessed, blest. 


Break, 


broke, brake, 


broken, broke. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burnt, burned, 


burned, burnt. 



* This table should be thoroughly studied. In the practical grammar of every-' 
day life no errors are so common as those which arise from the misuse of the 
principal parts of irregular verbs. 

t Where double forms occur the preferable is given first. 

JThe teacher will discriminate the different senses of "borne" and "born." 
So in other cases where the parts of a verb have different meanings. Where the 
verbs themselves (though having a common orthography) differ in derivation, 
they will be distinguished in the table. 



160 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave,* (to split,) 


cleft, clove, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Dig, 


digged, dug, 


digged, dug. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


dreamed, dreamt. 


Dress, 


dressed,* drest, 


dressed, drest. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, dwelled, 


dwelt, dwelled. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 



* Cleave, to adhere, is regular, the past tense clave having become obsolete. 

♦Such verbs as dress, bless, etc., should hardly be called irregular verbs. The 
difference between dressed and drest, blessed and blest, is only a difference in or- 
thography. The pronunciation — except in the case where blessed is a participial 
adjective pronounced in two syllables — is the same, and the irregularity in the 
spelling might well be neglected. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB: CONJUGATION. 161 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Freight, 


freighted, 


freighted, fraught. 


Gainsay, 


gainsaid, 


gainsaid. 


Get, 


got, 


gotten, got. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Go, • 


went, 


gone. 


Graved, 


graved, 


graved, graven. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hanged, hung, 


hanged, hung. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, hove, 


heaved, hove. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


held, holden. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt, kneeled, 


knelt, kneeled. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Lean, 


leaned, leant, 


leaned, leant. 


Leap, 


leaped, leapt, 


leaped, leapt. 


Learn, 


learned, learnt, 


learned, learnt. 



14 



162 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


Lighted, 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


Load, 


loaded, 


loaded, laden. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Melt, 


melted, 


melted, molten. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pass, 


passed, past, 


passed, past. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pen, 


pent, penned, 


pent, penned. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, quitted, _ 


quit, quitted. 


Rap, 


rapped, rapt, 


rapped, rapt. 


Bead, 


read, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


rived, riven. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, saw T n. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed, sodden. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


si 1 aped, shapeli. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEKB : CONJUGATION. 163 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Shear, 


sheared, shore, 


shorn, sheared. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrank, shrunk, 


shrunk, shrunken, 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sang, sung, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sank, sunk, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, 


slit. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, sowed. 


Speak, 


spoke, spake, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Spell, 


spelled, spelt, 


spelled, spelt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilled, spilt, 


spilled, spilt 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang, sprung, 


sprung. 


Spoil, 


spoiled, spoilt, 


spoiled, spoilt. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Stave,. 


staved, stove, 


staved, stove. 


Stay,, 


staid, stayed, 


staid, stayed. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 



164 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Stick, 


stuck, 




stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 




stung. 


Strew, 


strewed, 




strewn. 


Stride, 


strode, 




stridden, strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 




struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 




strung. 


Strow, 


strowed, 




strowed, strown. 


Swear, 


swore, sware, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweated, 


sweat, 


sweated, sweat. 


Sweep, 


swept, 




swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 




swelled, swollen. 


Swim, 


swam, swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 




swung. 


Take, 


took, 




taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 




taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 




torn. 


Tell, 


told, 




told. 


Think, 


thought, 




thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


throve, 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 




thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 




thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 




trodden, trod. 


Wake, 


woke, waked, 


waked, woke. 


Wax, 


waxed, 




waxed, waxen. 


Wear, 


wore, 




worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 




woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 




wept. 


Wed, 


wedded, 


wed, 


wedded, wed. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted, 


wet, wetted. 


Whet, 


whetted. 


, whet, 


whetted, whet. 


Win, 


won, 




won.. 


Wind, 


wound, 




wound. 


Work, 


worked, 


wrought, 


worked, wrought. 


Wring, 


wrung, 




wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 




written. 



ETYMOLOGY.- THE VERB: CONJUGATION. 165 

29. A few verbs are wanting in some of their Princi- 
pal Parts, and are called Defective Verbs. 

1. Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective, having no par- 
ticiples. The auxiliaries be and have have •present participles 
being and having; willing is used in the independent sense. 

2. The verb beivare (== be and aware) occurs mostly in the 
imperative mode, and has no past tense or participles. 

3. The verb ought (originally owed, past tense of the verb 
oive) has no participle, and is therefore defective. 

4. The verb quoth (Anglo-Saxon cwadh } he said or an- 
swered) is used only in the first and third persons of the past 
tense. Quoth always stands before its subject; as, " Where are 
you going, my lad?" quoth I. "To gather nuts," quoth he. 

5. The verb wit (Anglo-Saxon wittan, to know) has a past 
tense, wot, and an infinitive, to wit = namely. 

6. The verb hark is used only in the imperative mode. 

30. A large number of verbs, composed of a verb and 
a preposition or a verb and an adverb, are called Com- 
pound Adverbs. 

Examples. — To lie down, to go out, to cast up, etc. 



31. Scheme of the Verb : 

/ I. Active { L Transitive - 

f According to \ (2. Intransitive. 
meaning, into : / 

The Verb— \ / (1. Copula. 

Divided, I \ H. Substantive ..J 2 . Auxiliary. 

\ 3. Independent. 
I. Regular. 

i According to \ H. Irregular. 

form, into: ( ni. Impersonal. 

IV. Defective. 

V. Compound. 



166 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

IV. PARSING. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE VERB. 

32. The order of parsing a verb is: 

1. A Verb, and why ; 

2. Regular or Irregular, and why ; 

3. Principal Parts ; 

4. Active or Substantive, and why ; and if Active, 

5. Transitive or Intransitive, and why; and if Transitive,* 

6. Voice, and why ; and whether Active or Substantive, 

7. Mode, and why; 
8 Tense, and why; 

9. Number and Person, and why ; and, 
10. A Rule of Syntax. 

Remark. — The first fiye of the topics determine the classifi- 
cation of the verb; the next four, its 'properties; the last, its 
syntactical relation. 

MODEL FOR PARSING THE VERB. 

I. The farmer calls his sons from the field. 

Calls is a verb, because it expresses predication; regular, be- 
cause it forms its past tense and past participle in ed; Prin- 
cipal Parts — call, called, calling, called; an active verb, 
because it expresses action ; transitive, because the action 
terminates in an object; active voice, because the action 
is exerted by the subject; indicative mode, because it ex- 
presses a simple declaration ; present tense, because the 
action is in present time; in the singular number and 
third person, agreeing with its subject "farmer," accord- 



*In active intransitive verbs the distinctions of voice are useless. For in the 
sentence, "The stream flows,'' 1 why should we say that 'flows" is in the active 
voice when no passive voice is possible? Why maintain a discrimination which 
does not discriminate? 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE VEKB: PAUSING. 167 

ing to a rule of syntax which requires that a verb shall 
agree with its subject -nominative in number and person. 

II. The brook flows through the meadow. 

Flows is a verb, because it expresses predication ; regular, etc. ; 
Principal Parts — flow, flowed, flowing, flowed; an active 
verb, because it expresses action ; intransitive, because the 
action ends with the subject; * without distinctions of voice; 
indicative mode, because it expresses a simple declaration ; 
present tense, because the action is in present time ; in the 
singular number and third person, agreeing with its sub- 
ject, " brook," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

III. All the soldiers are brave. 

Are is a verb, because it expresses predication ; irregular, be- 
cause it forms its past tense and past participle by changes 
other than the addition of ed; Principal Parts — am, w T as, 
being, been ; a substantive verb, because it expresses being ; 
indicative mode, because it expresses a simple declaration ; 
present tense, because the predication is in present time; 
in the plural number and third person, agreeing with its 
subject, "soldiers;" etc. 

IV. The Union has been preserved by war. 

Has been preserved is a verb, because it expresses predication; 
regular, etc. ; Principal Parts — preserve, preserved, pre- 
serving, preserved; an active verb, because it expresses 
action; transitive, because it requires an object to com- 
plete the sense ; t passive voice, because the action is re- 
ceived by the subject ; indicative mode, because it expresses 
a simple declaration ; present perfect tense, because the ac- 



*Or, negatively, does not terminate in an object. 

f It is, of course, only in the active voice that an object is required to complete 
e sense. An object to a verb in the pass ive voice is unthinkable. Nevertheless 
the verb to preserve is an' active transitive verb, and the discrimination would 
better be retained even in the passive voice. 



168 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

tion is completed in present time ; in the singular number 
and third person, agreeing with its subject, " Union ;" etc. 

V. If the engineer had looked he might have seen 
the danger. 

Had looked is a verb, because it expresses predication ; regular, 
etc.; Principal Parts — look, looked, looking, looked; an 
active verb, because it expresses action; intransitive, be- 
cause the action terminates with the subject ; active voice, 
etc. ; subjunctive mode, because it contains a supposition 
introduced by "if;" past perfect tense, because the action 
is represented as completed in rjast time; etc., etc. 

Might have seen is a verb, because it expresses predication ; irreg- 
ular, forming its past tense and past participle by changes 
other than the addition of ed; Principal Parts — see, saw, 
seeing, seen ; active, etc. ; transitive, etc. ; active voice, the 
action being exerted by the subject; potential mode, be- 
cause it expresses possibility; past perfect tense, denoting 
action completed in past time ; etc., etc. 

VI. We must not leave this work to others. 

Must leave is a verb, etc.; irregular, etc.; Principal Parts — 
leave, left, leaving, left; active, etc.; transitive, etc.; act- 
ive voice, etc. ; potential mode, because it expresses neces- 
sity ; present tense, etc. ; in the negative form, expressing 
the action by negation; etc., etc. 

VII. Let me pass slowly through the street. 

Let pass is a verb, because it denotes predication ; regular, etc. ; 
Principal Parts — pass, passed, passing, passed; active, etc.; 
intransitive, etc. ; without distinctions of voice ; imperative 
mode, denoting a command; present tense, denoting ac- 
tion in the present time; singular number and first per- 
son, agreeing with its subject -objective, "me," according 
to an idiom of the English language. 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE VEEB: PAUSING. 169 

VIII. La Fayette visited Mount Vernon to see the 
tomb of Washington. 

Visited is a verb, etc.; regular, etc.; Principal Parts — visit, vis- 
ited, visiting, visited; active, etc.; transitive, etc., etc. 

To see is a verb, because it denotes action; irregular, etc.; 
Principal Parts — see, saw, seeing, seen ; transitive, etc. ; 
active voice, because it represents action as exerted ; infin- 
itive mode, because the action is exj)ressed in a general 
sense ; present tense, etc. ; without number or person. 

IX. We are studying the verb. 

Are studying is a verb, etc.; regular, etc.; Principal Parts — 
study, studied, studying, studied; active, etc.; transitive, 
etc. ; active voice, etc. ; indicative mode, etc. ; present tense, 
etc. ; in the progressive form, because it expresses continu- 
ous action ; plural number and first person, etc. 

X. We heard the whip-poor-will lamenting. 

Heard is a verb, etc., etc. 

Lamenting is a participle, derived from the verb lament; regu- 
lar, etc.; Principal Parts — lament, lamented, lamenting, 
lamented; active voice; present tense, expressing continu- 
ous action ; without number or person, having no subject. 

ABRIDGED MODEL FOR PARSING THE VERB. 

I. The Emancipation Proclamation was issued 
by Lincoln. 

Was issued is a verb; regular: issue, issued, issuing, issued; 
active; transitive; passive voice; indicative mode; past 
tense ; singular number and third person. 

II. Wake, harp of the North ! 

Wake is a verb; irregular: wake, woke, waking, waked; act- 
ive ; intransitive ; without voice ; imperative mode, etc. 
15 



170 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

REVIEW EXERCISES ON THE VERB. 

I. State the Classification of the following verbs : 

Abate, abide, add, allude, am, annex, answer, assail, become, 
begin, believe, bind, break, can, censure, complain, dare, do, 
enter, esteem, fan, right, forego, forget, gain, give, go, guard, 
have, hide, hold, hunt, journey, know, last, live, lost, make, 
mix, mourn, name, note, open, partake, question, rain, risk, 
run, save, sink, take, turn, urge, venture, wind, yield. 

II. State the Voice of the verbs in the following sentences : 

1. He walks. 2. We understand. 3. It is believed. 4. They 
were detained. 5. The traveler lost his way. 6. The hunter 
returned next morning. 7. Hopes had been entertained of his 
recovery. 8. The State was admitted into the Union. 9. The 
people will celebrate the Fourth. 10. Nature hath her charms. 

II . Lessons should be well recited. 12. Study with constant zeal. 
13. Heed a father's counsels. 14. Fear nothing but falsehood. 

III. State the Mode and Tense of the verbs in the following 

sentences : 

1. Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 2. The rainbow spans 
the cloud. 3. At eve it shall be light. 4. If thou hadst been here, 
my brother had not died. 5. I will not be deceived. 6. The boy 
should accept the advice. 7. The hedgehog saw his shadow. 
8. The news was brought by a postboy. 9. It is better to have 
striven in vain than never to have striven. 

IV. State the Number and Person of the verbs in the follow- 

ing sentences : 

1. He thinks. 2. The fox runs. 3. The man approaches. 
4. The boys talk together. 5. You have every thing to gain. 
6. When shall we arrive ? 7. Why art thou surprised ? 8. Men 
do not succeed by treachery. 9. We might have won the prize. 
10. The fish would not be caught. 11. He holdeth ever his 
hands before his face. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE VEEB: PABSING. 171 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Parse all the Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Verbs in the 
following examples : * 

1. Echo repeats each voice she hears. 

2. The mist rises, and the mountain is hidden from sight. 

3. If you wish to know the truth, speak the truth. 

4. The noble Brutus 
Hath told you Csesar was ambitious: 
If it were so, it was a grievous fault, 

And grievously hath Caesar answered it. — Shakespeare. 

5. I chatter, chatter, as I flow 

To join the brimming river; 
For men may come and men may go, 
But I go on forever. — Tennyson. 

6. The mountains look on Marathon, 

And Marathon looks on the sea; 
And musing there an hour alone, 

I dreamed that Greece might still be free; 
For standing on the Persian's grave, 
I could not deem myself a slave. — Byron. 

7. Parrhasius stood gazing forgetfully 
Upon his canvas. There Prometheus lay 
Chained to the cold rocks of Mount Caucasus — 
The vulture at his vitals, and the links 

Of the lame Lemnian festering in his flesh ; 
And as the painter's mind felt through the dim 
Bapt mystery, and plucked the shadows forth 
With its far-reaching fancy, and with form 
And color clad them, his fine, earnest eye 
Flashed with a passionate fire, and the quick curl 
Of his thin nostril and his quivering lip 
Were like the wing'd god's, breathing from his flight. 
—Willis. 

* Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives, according to abridged models. 



172 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE ADVERB. 
I. CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Principle. — The meaning of a verb may be modi- 
fied by some other word. 

Examples. — 1. The rain falls gently on the flowers. 

2. The wind sighed mournfully among the trees. 

3. The children greatly rejoiced at the prospect. 

4. "We then passed through a causeway of stalactites and 
afterwards entered the Senate Chamber. 

In these examples the words in Italics modify the meanings 
of the verbs in the respective sentences. 

2. Words associated with verbs to modify their mean- 
ings are called Adverbs. 

3. The meaning of an adjective may be modified by 
an adverb associated with it. 

Examples. — 1. The loss of time is very great. 

2. The summer sky is serenely beautiful. 

3. The stars of heaven are eloquently bright. 

In these examples the words in Italics modify the meanings 
of the adjectives in the respective sentences. 

Remark I. — When an adverb modifies the meaning of an 
adjective, the adjective is generally joined with a verb in the 
predicate of a sentence; as, "is . . . great," "is . . . beautiful," 
etc., in the above examples. Thus the modifying power of an 
adverb (=to a verb) passes from the verb to the adjective. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADVERB: CLASSIFICATION. 173 

Remark 2. — Participial adjectives may be modified by ad- 
verbs in the same manner as other adjectives. 

Examples. — 1. The swiftly flying years have gone. 
2. We received a hastily written dispatch. 

Here the adverbs "swiftly" and "hastily" modify the mean- 
ings of the participial adjectives "flying" and "written." 

4:. The meaning of an adverb may be modified by 
another adverb associated with it. 

Examples. — 1. The story was rather slowly told. 

2. We knew too well the meaning of his frown. 

3. Ever thicker fell the snow-flakes. 

Here the adverb "rather" modifies the meaning of the ad- 
verb " slowly ; " the adverb " too " modifies the meaning of the 
adverb "well;" and the adverb "ever" modifies the meaning 
of the adverb "thicker." 

5. Definition. — An adverb is a word used to mod- 
ify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another ad- 
verb. 

6. Adverbs are classified according to two principles 
of division : 

1. According to the office of the adverb in the sentence; 

2. According to the meaning of the adverb. 

7. According to their offices in sentences adverbs are 
divided into — I. Simple; II. Modal; III. Re- 
sponsive ; IV. Interrogative ; V. Conjunctive ; 
VI. Correlative. 

1. A Simple Adverb is one that modifies the meaning of the 
single word with which it is associated in the sentence. 

Examples. — 1. The rainbow is always beautiful. 

2. We stood upon the ever shifting sands. 



174 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

In the preceding examples the adverb "always" modifies 
the meaning of the single word " beautiful," and the adverb 
"ever" modifies the meaning of the single word "shifting." 

II. A Modal Adverb is one that denotes whether the thought 
expressed in the sentence is affirmative, negative, or contin- 
gent. 

Examples. — 1. The messenger will certainly arrive. 

2. The story is not believed. 

3. This is possibly the last opportunity. 

Here the adverb "certainly" gives affirmative character to 
the thought expressed in the sentence ; the adverb "not" turns 
the sentence into a negative; and the adverb "possibly" makes 
the sentence contingent. 

Remark. — The modifying influence of a modal adverb ex- 
tends to the ivhole sentence in which it occurs. 

III. A Responsive Adverb is one that may be used in answer- 
ing categorical questions.* 

Examples, — 1. Did you come from home to-day? Yes. 
2. Have you asked the teacher to be excused ? No. 

Here the adverbs "yes" and "no" are used as answers to 
the two categorical questions. 

Remark I. — Many questions are not categorical. 

Example. — What do you intend to do on reaching the 
city? 

Remark 2. — A responsive adverb is equivalent to a complete 
sentence. 

Example. — Have you mastered your lesson? Yes. 

Here " yes " = / have mastered my lesson. 

List of Responsives. — Ay, aye, nay, no, yea, yes. 



* A categorical question is one that may be answered yes or no. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADVERB: CLASSIFICATION, 175 

IV. An Interrogative Adverb is one used to ask a question. 

Examples. — 1. Where does truth live? 

2. When will the passenger train arrive ? 

3. Why did you not recite to-day? 

Here the adverbs "where," "when," and " why," are used 
to introduce the questions. 

Remark. — Interrogative adverbs are closely analogous to In- 
terrogative pronouns, as may be seen from the interrogative 
letters wh, with which all such words begin. 

List of Interrogatives. — When, wiience, where, where- 
at, whereby, wherefore, wherein, why. 

V. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that is used to connect the 
parts of a sentence. 

Examples. — 1. Come to the table when the feast is spread. 

2. The flocks were grazing where the grass grew rankest. 

3. Thou canst not tell whence it comes or whither it goes. 

Here the adverbs ' l when ," " where, " " whence, " " whither, ' ' 
are used to connect the parts of the sentences hi which they 
respectively occur. 

Remark. — Conjunctive adverbs, in addition to their connect- 
ive office in sentences, also modify some particular word with 
which they are associated. 

List of Conjunctive Adverbs. — As, before, since, than, 
when, whence, whenever, where, whereafter, whereat, where- 
by, wherefore, wherein, whereon, whereout, whereto, wherever, 
whether, w T hither, why. 

VI. Correlative Adverbs are those which express reciprocal 
relations in sentences. 

Examples. — 1. Then men lived in huts; noiv, in palaces. 
2. So live as to deserve praise. 

Here the correlative adverbs "then . . . now" and " so ... as" 
express reciprocal relations in the sentences. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

List of Correlative Adverbs^— As ... as; as ... so; 
here . . . there ; inasmuch ... as ; now . . . then ; so ... as ; 
then . . . when; there . . . where; etc. 

exercises. 

I. According to their office classify the Adverbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1. Time is ever flying. 

2. When will the street be finished ? 

3. As we live, so shall we be. 

4. Are the exercises correct? Yes. 

5. Some pitched the tent, while others kindled a fire. 

II. 1. Write three sentences containing Simple Adverbs. 

2. Write three sentences containing Modal Adverbs. 

3. Write three sentences containing Conjunctive Adverbs. - 

4. Write three sentences containing Correlative Adverbs. 

5. Write three sentences containing Responsive Adverbs. 

8. According to their meaning, adverbs are divided 
into — I. Adverbs of Time; II. Adverbs of Place; 
III. Adverbs of Cause; IV. Adverbs of Manner; 
V. Adverbs of Degree; VI. Numeral, Adverbs; 
VII. Expletive Adverbs. 

1. Adverbs of Time are those which answer such questions as 
When f How long f How often f 

Examples.— 1. How often do you lecture? Answer: Daily. 

2. When did mankind believe in signs ? Answer : Formerly. 

II. Adverbs of Place are those which answer such questions 
as Where f Whither ? In what place f 

Examples. — 1. Where is the air? Answer: Uvery-ivhere. 

2. Whither were they going? Answer: Abroad. 

3. In what place shall we encamp ? Answer : Here. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADVEEB: CLASSIFICATION. 177 

List of Adverbs of Place. — Aboard, above, abroad, aloft, 
aloof, ashore, away, back, backwards, below, beyond, down, 
downwards, every- where, far, first, forth, forwards, henee, here, 
herein, hither, nowhere, somewhere, thence, there, therein, 
thither, whence, where, wherever, wiierein, whither, yonder. 

III. Adverbs of Cause are those which answer such questions 
as Why? Wherefore? 

Examples. — 1. We see; therefore we believe. 
2. Let us, then, remember the poor. 

Here the adverbs "therefore" and "then" give the logical 
reasons why we should believe and remember. 

List of Adverbs of Cause.— Since, then, therefore, where- 
fore, why. 

IV. Adverbs of Manner are such as answer the question How? 

Examples. — 1. How shall we act? Answer: Justly, truly. 
2. Hoiv did James recite ? Answer : Well, clearly. 

Remark. — Adverbs of manner are very numerous. They are 
nearly all formed by adding the syllable ly to adjectives. 

Examples. — Brave, bra ve^/; Mr, fau%; great, greatly; late, 
lately; near, nearly; one, only; true, truly; whole, wholly; etc. 

V. Adverbs of Degree are such as answer the question Hoiv 
much ? 

Examples. — I. Hoiv much should we seek after pleasure? 
Answer: Scarcely at all. 

2. How much does petty care distress? Answer: Too much. 

List of Adverbs of Degree. — Almost, altogether, as, 
chiefly, enough, equally, even, greatly, little, more, most, much, 
nearly, only, partly, scarcely, somewhat, too, wholly, etc. 

VI. Numeral Adverbs are those which answer the question 
Hoiv many times? 



178 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Examples. — 1. He failed twice, and was twice successful. 
2. Fifty times the tale was told. 

Here the adverbs " twice 77 and " fifty times" tell how often 
the thing occurred. 

List of Numeral Adverbs.* — Once, twice, thrice, five 
times, ten times, sixty times, etc. 

VII. Expletive Adverbs are such as have no definite meaning, 
but are used to introduce sentences, according to the idiom of 
the English language. 

Examples. — 1. There is a river called the Tennessee. 
2. Well, honor is the subject of my story. 

Here the adverbs " there 7 ' and "well" have no definite 
meaning, being used merely as introductory words. 

Remark I. — Expletive adverbs are so called because they are 
used to fill up (Latin explere, to fill up) sentences. 

List of Expletives. — Aye, now, there, well, why, etc. 

Remark 2. — Responsive and expletive adverbs are independ- 
ent of syntactical connection. 

Remark 3. — Certain adjuncts of frequent occurrence in sen- 
tences perform the office of adverbs, and are therefore called 
Adverbial Adjuncts.! 

Examples. — 1. At length wc came to a turn in the road. 
2. In like manner we shall gain the prize. 

List of Adverbial Adjuncts. — As yet, at all, at best, at 
hand, at last, at length, at once, at times, by and by, by chance, 
by far, by turns, by no means, ever and anon, from above, from 
below, inasmuch as, in case, in like manner, in short, in that, 
in truth, no more, one by one, up and down, etc. 



*To be carefully distinguished from the Numeral Adjectives. See p. 107, Rem. 2. 

t An Adjunct is a short collection of words incomplete in sense — generally in- 
troduced with a preposition. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADVEEB: COMPARISON. 179 

EXERCISES. 

I. According to their meaning classify the Adverbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. We shall know more hereafter. 

2. The task was well and quickly done. 

3. There waved the golden wheat ; there bloomed the rose. 

4. There was a philosopher called Pliny. 

II. 1. Write three sentences containing Adverbs of Time. 

2. Write three sentences containing Adverbs of Manner. 

3. Write three sentences containing Numeral Adverbs. 



9. Scheme of the Adverb : 



According to 

use, into: 



The Adverb — divided, < 



k According to 
meaning into: 



I. Simple. 
II. Modal. 

III. Responsive. 

IV. Interrogative. 
V. Conjunctive. 

VI. Correlative. 

I. Adverbs of Time. 
II. Adverbs of Place. 

III. Adverbs of Cause. 

IV. Adverbs of Manner. 
V. Adverbs of Degree. 

VI. Numeral Adverbs. 
\VII. Expletive Adverbs. 



II. COMPARISON. 



10. Principle. — Adverbs may be changed in form to 
denote degrees in their meaning. 

I. That form of the adverb which expresses its meaning in 
an absolute sense is called the Positive Degree. 



180 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Examples. — 1. The rain fell fast; the wind blew loud. 
2. He waved his hands wildly in the air. 

Here the adverbs "fast," "loud," and "wildly," express their 
meanings in an absolute sense. 

II. That form of the adverb which expresses its meaning in 
a comparative sense is called the Comparative Degree. 

Examples. — 1. The rain fell faster than before. 

2. The house was more plainly visible. 

Here the adverbs "faster" and "more plainly" express 
meanings in a higher sense than would be denoted by the 
positive forms fast and plainly. 

3. After leaving the city we were less alarmed. 

4. These arguments are less easily answered. 

Here the adverbs "less" and "less easily" express mean- 
ings in a lower sense than is denoted by little and easily. 

III. That form of the adverb which expresses a meaning in 
the highest or loiucst sense is called the Superlative Degree. 

Examples.— 1. The tall man shouted loudest. 

2. The' beggar spoke most humbly. 

Here the adverbs "loudest" and "most humbly" express 
meanings in the highest sense. 

3. Against the wind the fire spread least rapidly. 

Here the adverb "least rapidly" expresses a meaning in the 
loivest sense. 

11. The comparative and superlative degrees of ad- 
verbs are formed in one of two ways : 

1. By adding to the positive er for the comparative and est 
for the superlative ; or, 

2. By placing before the positive more or less for the com- 
parative, and most or least for the superlative. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE ADVEEB: PAESING. 181 

Remark I. — A few adverbs are compared in both ivays. 

Examples. — Slow, slow-er, slow- est; or, slow, more slow, 
most slow. 

Remark 2. — It will be seen that the comparison of adverbs 
is effected in the same manner as the comparison of adjectives. 

Remark 3. — Several kinds of adverbs, such as adverbs of 
cause, numerals, and expletives, do not admit of comparison. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Compare the following Adverbs : * 

Always, badly, boldly, calmly, deeply, duly, early, ever, 
fairly, fast, gravely, hence, high, how, humbly, ill, joyfully, 
loud, mainly, merely, never, not, only, purely, rarely, rudely, 
severely, slow, twice, urgently, well, whence, yesterday. 

11. 1. Write five sentences containing adverbs in the Posi- 
tive Degree. 

2. Write five sentences containing adverbs in the Compara- 
tive Degree. 

3. Write five sentences containing adverbs in the Superla- 
tive Degree. 

III. PARSING. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE ADVERB. 

12. The order of parsing an adverb is: 

1. An Adverb, and why; 

2. Classification; 

3. In what Degree ; 

4. Comparison; 

5. What it modifies ; and, 

6. A Pule of Syntax. 



*If any do not admit of comparison, lot it be so stated. 



182 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



MODEL FOR PARSING THE ADVERB. 

I. The birds sing merrily. 

Merrily is an adverb, because it modifies the meaning of a verb; 
simple, because it modifies a single word; an adverb of 
manner, answering the question How f in the positive de- 
gree : positive merrily, comparative more merrily, superla- 
tive most merrily; modifying the verb "sing," according 
to a rule of syntax which requires that an adverb shah 
modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

II. We then returned home. 

Then is an adverb, because it modifies the meaning of a verb; 
simple, because it modifies a single word; an adverb of 
time, answering the question When? not admitting of 
comparison; modifying the verb "returned," according to 
a rule of syntax, etc. 

III. Brave men shrink not from danger. 

Not is an adverb, because it modifies the meaning of a verb; 
modal, because it renders the assertion negative; without 
comparison; modifying the verb "shrink," according to a 
rule of syntax, etc. 

IV. The hay- makers hurry home when the storm 
threatens. 

When is an adverb, because it modifies a verb; conjunctive, 
because it connects the two clauses of the sentence; an 
adverb of time; modifying the verb "threatens," accord- 
ing to a rule of syntax, etc. 

V. Where moisture abounds, there vegetation 
flourishes. 

Where . . . there are adverbs, because they are used to modify 
verbs; correlative, because they express a reciprocal rela- 



ETYMOLOGY.— THE ADVEKB: PAKSING. 183 

tion; adverbs of place, answering the question Where? 
without comparison; modifying the verbs " abounds" and 
"flourishes," according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

VI. The flowers are very fragrant. 

Very is an adverb, because it is used to modify an adjective; 
simple, modifying but a single word ; an adverb of degree, 
answering the question How much f without comparison ; 
modifying the adjective "fragrant," according to a rule of 
syntax which requires that an adverb shall modify a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb. 

VII. The work was pretty skillfully done. 
Pretty is an adverb, because it modifies an adverb; simple, 
modifying but a single word ; an adverb of degree ; with- 
out comparison; modifying the adverb "skillfully," ac- 
cording to a rule of syntax, etc. 

VIII. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

In the hand ... in the bush are adverbial adjuncts performing the 
office of adverbs ; adjuncts of place, answering the question 
Where f without comparison, etc.* 

Remark. — After the full model, for parsing the adverb has 
been mastered, an abridged model may be substituted. 



ABRIDGED MODEL FOR PARSING THE ADVERB. 

The story is truly wonderful. 

Truly is an adverb; modal; an adverb of degree: truly, more 
truly, most truly; modifying the adjective "wonderful," 
according to a rule of syntax, etc. 



*This parsing of an adjunct must not be understood to take the place of the 
strictly etymological parsing of the expression word by word. 



184 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Parse all the Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, and Ad- 
verbs in the following sentences : * 

1. Once, twice, thrice the old bell solemnly sounded. 

2. We calmly view the joys of yesterday. 

3. And so never ending, but always descending, 
Sounds and motions forever and ever are blending. 

4. Only a sweet and virtuous soul, ~~ ^' 

Like seasoned timber, never gives ; 
But though the whole world turns to coal, 
Then chiefly lives. — Herbert. 

5. Never did sun more beautifully steep 

In his first splendor valley, rock, or hill ; 
Ne'er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep ! 
The river glideth at his own sweet will. — Wordsworth. 

6. What seemed particularly odd to Rip was, that though 
these folks were evidently amusing themselves, yet they main- 
tained the gravest faces, the most mysterious silence, and were, 
withal, the most melancholy party of pleasure he had ever wit- 
nessed. — Irving. 

7. Presently my soul grew stronger ; 
Hesitating then no longer, 

"Sir," said I, "or madam, truly 

Your forgiveness I implore; , 

But the fact is, I was napping, 
And so gently you came rapping, 
And so faintly you came tapping, 
Tapping at my chamber door, 
That I scarce was sure I heard you." — 
Here I opened wide the door ; — 

Darkness there, and nothing more! — Poe. 



♦The Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Verbs, according to abridged models. 



ETYMOLOGY.— PEEPOSITION: CLASSIFICATION. 185 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE PREPOSITION. , 
I. CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Definition. — A Preposition is a word used to ex- 
press the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other 
word. 

Examples. — 1. The poet writes in rhyme. 

2. The plowman turns the sod of the prairie. 

Here the preposition "in" expresses the relation of the noun 
"rhyme" to the verb "writes;" and the preposition "of," the 
relation of the noun "prairie" to the noun "sod." 

3. I asked the stranger to go with me. 

4. The old wrens flew away ; the young ones flew after them. 

Here the prepositions "with" and "after" express the rela- 
tions of the pronouns "me" and "them" to the verbs "go" 
and "flew," respectively. 

Remark I. — The noun or pronoun following the preposition 
is said to be the object of the preposition. 

Remark 2. — The object of a preposition maybe a verbal noun. 

Examples. — 1. The postboy was about to leave. 
2. She did nothing but (to) cry. 

Remark 3. — Sometimes the object of a preposition is a par- 
ticipial noun. 

Examples. — 1. They made preparations for returning. 

2. We learn to wait by waiting. 
16 



186 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Remark 4. — Sometimes the object of a preposition is a clause. 

Examples. — 1. We were debating on what we should do to 
regain the road. 

2. We hoped to agree about who' ought to receive the ap- 
pointment. 

2. Prepositions are divided into six classes : I. Simple; 
II. Derivative; III. Compound; IV. Participial; 
Y. Verbal; VI. Adjectival. 

I. The Simple Prepositions are: At, after, but, by, down, far, 
for, from, in, of, off, on, over, past, round, since, till, to, though, 
under, up, with. 

II. The Derivative Prepositions are formed by prefixing a or be 
to other simple words. The list is as follows : Abroad, above, 
about, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, 
around, athwart; before, behind, below, beneath, beside, be- 
sides, between, betwixt, beyond. 

Remark. — The meaning of the prefix a is at or on; the mean- 
ing of be is by; as, between = by twain — that is, by two. 

III. The Compound Prepositions are formed by uniting two 
prepositions or a preposition and an adverb. The following is 
the list : Into, out of, throughout, toward, towards, until, unto, 
underneath, upon, within, without. 

IV. The Participial Prepositions are those having the forms 
of participles. The following is the list : Barring, bating, con- 
cerning, during, excepting, notwithstanding, pending, regard- 
ing; respecting, touching. 

V. Two verbs in the imperative mood have the office of 
prepositions, and are called Verbal Prepositions. They are: 
Save, except. 

VI. A few words, generally used as adjectives, have some- 
times the force of prepositions, and are called Adjectival Prepo- 
sitions. They are : Near, next, nigh, opposite. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE PKEPOSITION: PASSING. 187 

Remark I. — Certain of the above prepositions are sometimes 
used as conjunctions, others as adverbs. 

Examples. — 1. They were all present but (= except) Tom. 
2. We went along the river bank. 

Here the word "but," generally a conjunction, and the 
word "along," generally an adverb, are used as prepositions. 

Remark 2. — The preposition, being merely a relational word, 
has no grammatical properties. 



II. PARSING. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE PREPOSITION. 

3. The order of parsing a preposition is : 

1. A Preposition, and why; 

2. The Relation which it expresses ; and, 

3. A Rule of Syntax. 

MODEL FOR PARSING THE PREPOSITION. 

I. The fleet reindeer is found in Lapland. 

In is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the noun 
"Lapland " to the verb "is found," according to a rule of 
syntax which requires that a preposition shall express the 
relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word. 

II. Brevity is the soul of wit. 

Of is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the noun 
"wit" to the noun "soul/' according to a rule, etc. 

III. The boys are fond of play. 

Of is a preposition, because it shows the relation of the noun 
"play" to the adjective "fond," according to a rule, etc. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IV. We sailed old ocean round. 

Round is a preposition, because it shows the relation of the noun 
" ocean" to the verb " sailed," according to a rule, etc. 

Note.— It will be seen that in this last example the preposition 
" round " stands after the noun "ocean." 



EXERCISES ON THE PREPOSITION. 

I. 1. Point out the Prepositions contained in the parsing 
exercises on page 184. 

2.' Write ten sentences illustrating the use of Prepositions. 

II. Parse all the words in the following sentences : * 

1. He went for nothing, and returned with a burden. 

2. He crossed the Plains to search in the canons for gold. 

3. After the battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was banished to 
St. Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. 

4. From peak to peak the rattling crags among 
Leaps the live thunder. — Byron. 

5. The fiend 

O'er bog or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, 
With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way. — Milton. 

6. But hark ! the vesper call to prayer, 

As slow the orb of daylight sets, 
Is rising sweetly on the air 
From Syria's thousand minarets. — Moore. 

7. At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 

Should tremble at his power. 
In dreams, through camp and court, he bore 
The trophies of a conqueror. — Halleck. 



♦All, except Prepositions, according to abridged models. 



ETYMOLOGY. — COX JUNCTION: CLASSIFICATION. 189 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 
I. CLASSIFICATION. 

1. Definition. — A Conjunction is a word used to 
connect words, sentences, or like parts of sentences. 

Examples. — 1. Honor and shame from no condition rise. 

2. Rule or ruin, is the motto of the mean. 

Here the conjunction "and" connects the ivorcle " honor " 
and " shame;' 7 and the conjunction "or" connects the tvords 
"rule" and "ruin." 

3. Out of the yard and up the street he rushed. 

Here the conjunction "and" connects the like parts of sen- 
tences ■, "out of the yard" and "up the street." 

4. We went to Philadelphia because we desired to see the 
tomb of Franklin. 

Here the conjunction "because" connects the two sentences. 

Remark. — Sometimes conjunctions are used to introduce sen- 
tences. 

Examples. — 1. And now let us consider the fourth and last 
argument. 

2. That Edison is a great inventor, can not be doubted. 

3. So the story broke off in the middle. 

Here the conjunction "and" introduces the first sentence, 
the conjunction "that" the second, and the conjunction "so" 
the third. 



190 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



List of the Principal Conjunctions. 



Accordingly, 


Consequently, 


Likewise, 


Still, 


Also, 


Either, 


Moreover, 


Than, 


Although, 


Except, 


Neither, 


Then, 


And, 


For, 


Nor, 


Thence, 


As, 


Further, 


Notwithstandi ng, 


Therefore, 


Because, 


Hence, 


Only, 


Though, 


Both, 


Llowever, 


Otherwise, 


Whereas, 


But, 


Lest, 


So, 


Wherefore. 



2. Conjunctions are divided into the following four 
classes: I. Coordinative Conjunctions; II. Sub- 

ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS; III. CORRELATIVE CON- 
JUNCTIONS; IV. Compound Conjunctions. 

I. Coordinative Conjunctions. 

3. Coordinative Conjunctions are those which connect 
like sentences or like parts of sentences. 

Examples. — 1. Lilies and violets are blooming together. 

2. Make the sketch with pencil or crayon. 

Here the coordinative conjunctions "and" and "or" con- 
nect the nouns in like relation in the sentences. 

3. He spent the day in wading creeks and gathering nuts. 

Here the coordinative conjunction "and" connects "wading 
creeks' 7 and "gathering nuts 77 — like parts of sentences. 

4. The merchant fixed a price, but the man refused to buy. 

5. The gentlemen entered and the ladies rose to greet them. 

Here the coordinative conjunctions "but 77 and "and 77 con- 
nect the like sentences between which they stand. 

4. Coordinative conjunctions are divided into three 
classes: 



ETYMOLOGY. — CONJUNCTION: CLASSIFICATION. 191 

1. Such as denote simply the addition of one idea to an- 
other — called Copulative Conjunctions. 

The principal copulative conjunctions are: Also, and, fur- 
ther, moreover. 

2. Such as denote an opposition or contrast of the ideas 
which they connect — called Disjunctive Conjunctions. 

The principal disjunctive conjunctions are : Although, hut, 
either, else, except, however, lest, neither, nor, notwithstand- 
ing, or, otherwise, still, than, through, whereas, yet. 

3. Such as denote an inference or consequence — called Illa- 
tive Conjunctions. 

The principal illative conjunctions are : Because, consequent- 
ly, for, hence, then, thence, therefore, wherefore. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out and classify the Conjunctions in Longfellow's 
Psalm of Life: 

2. Write a list of the principal Coordinative Conjunctions. 

3. Write three sentences containing Copulative Conjunctions. 

4. Write three sentences containing Disjunctive Conjunctions. 

5. Write three sentences containing Illative Conjunctions. 

II. Sufoordinative Conjunctions. 

5. Subordinative Conjunctions are those which con- 
nect the dependent with the independent parts of a sen- 
tence. 

Examples. — 1. We shall go nutting if the weather is fair. 

2. The boys rejoiced because the lesson was ended. 

3. They put up a hox that the wrens might have a nest. 

Here the subordinative conjunctions "if," "because," and 
"that," connect the dependent clauses with the principal parts 
of the sentences. The dependent clauses are set in Italics. 



192 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

6. Subordinative conjunctions are divided into four 

classes : 

1. Such as denote the reason or condition oh which some- 
thing depends — called Causal Conjunctions. 

The principal causal conjunctions are: As, because, for, if, 
lest, since, that ( = in order that), though, whereas. 

2. Such as denote time — called Temporal Conjunctions. 

The principal temporal conjunctions are : After, before, ere, 
then, until, when, while, whilst. 

3. Such as denote place or motion — called Locative Conjunc- 
tions. 

The principal locative conjunctions are: Thence, whence; 
there, where; thither, whither. 

4. Such as denote manner or degree — called Modal Conjunc- 
tions. 

The principal modal conjunctions are : As, how, as if, so as. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Write a list of the principal Subordinative Conjunctions. 

2. Illustrate the use of Causal, Temporal, Locative, and Mo- 
dal Conjunctions with two sentences each. 

III. Correlative Conjunctions. 

7. Correlative Conjunctions are such as denote a com- 
mon relation of the parts which they connect. 

Examples. — 1. Aristides was both just and wise. 

2. We must either hasten our march or return by night. 

3. Though reputation withers, yet character remains. 

Here the correlative conjunctions " both . . . and," " either . . . 



ETYMOLOGY. — CONJUNCTION : CLASSIFICATION. 193 

or," and a though ... yet," denote that the parts which they 
connect are in a common relation. 

The principal correlative conjunctions are : As ... as, as ... so, 
both . . . and, either ... or, if . . . then, neither . . . nor, notwith- 
standing . . . yet, or . . . or, so . . . as, though . . . yet, whether ... or. 

Remark. — Both coordinative and subordinative conjunctions 
may be used as correlatives. 

EXERCISE. 

Write five sentences containing Correlative Conjunctions. 

IV. Compound Conjunctions. 

8. Compound Conjunctions are combinations of words 
having the force and office of conjunctions. 

Examples. — 1. He acted as if he were afraid of his shadow. 

2. Umbrellas were taken, inasmuch as it threatened rain. 

3. The soldier, as ivell as the statesman, was applauded. 

Here the expressions "as if, 77 " inasmuch as,' V and "as well 
as," are compound conjunctions. 

The principal compound conjunctions are : As if, as well as, 
but also, but likewise, notwithstanding that, not only. 

Remark. — It will be seen that many of the conjunctions are 
also used as simple and conjunctive adverbs. 

Examples. — 1. When will vacation come? 

2. The lion roars zvhen the keeper feeds him. 

3. He told us a marvelous story, when nothing had occurred. 

In the first of these examples "when" is a simple adverb; 
in the second, "when" is a conjunctive adverb; in the third, 
"when" is a conjunction. 

exercise. 

Write five sentences containing Compound Conjunctions. 
17 



194 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

II. PARSING. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE CONJUNCTION. 

9. The order of parsing a conjunction is: 

1. A Conjunction, and why; 

2. Coordinative, Subordinative, Correlative, or Compound, 
and why ; 

3. The Parts which it connects ; and, 

4. A Rule of Syntax. 

MODEL FOR PARSING THE CONJUNCTION. 

I. Lions and tigers are found in the jungles of India. 

And is a conjunction, because it is used to connect the parts of 
a sentence ; coordinative, because the parts connected are in 
like relation; connecting the words "lions" and " tigers," 
according to a rule of syntax which requires that conjunc- 
tions shall connect words or sentences. 

II. The trees were covered with blossoms, but an 
untimely frost destroyed them. 

But is a conjunction, because it is used to connect sentences; 
coordinative, because the sentences are in like relation ; con- 
necting the two sentences between which it stands, accord- 
ing to a rule of syntax which requires that conjunctions 
shall connect words or sentences. 

III. The work was nearly finished when a boy 
came running to the field. 

When is a conjunction, because it is used to connect sentences ; 
subordinate, because it connects a dependent with an in- 
dependent clause; connecting the sentence which follows 
with that which precedes the conjunction, according to a 
rule of syntax which requires, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE CONJUNCTION: PAUSING. 195 

IV. So live as to merit praise. 

So ... as are conjunctions, because they are used to connect the 
parts of a sentence ; correlative, because they express a com- 
mon relation of the parts connecting "live" with "to merit 
praise, 77 according to a rule of syntax, etc. 

V. The man showed energy as well as foresight. 

As well as is a conjunction, etc. ; compound, being a combina- 
tion of words having the office of a conjunction, etc. 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Parse all the words in the following sentences : * 

1. Not truth, but falsehood, fears the open day. 

2. Man often strives in vain because his plan is foolish. 

3. The poet sees palaces and giants in the clouds, whereas 
the common eye sees only the clouds themselves. 

4. Scrooge went to bed again and thought, and thought, and 
thought it over and over and over. — Dickens. 

5. It was at Rome, on the 15th of October, 1764, as I sat 
musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the barefooted 
friars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that the 
idea of writing the decline and fall of the city first started to 
my mind. — Gibbon. 

6. And I have loved thee, Ocean ! and my joy 

Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be 
Borne, like thy bubbles, onward : from a boy 

I wantoned with thy breakers — they to me 

Were a delight ; and if the freshening sea 
Made them a terror, 'tw^as a pleasing fear, 

For I was, as it were, a child of thee, 
And trusted to thy billows far and near, 
And laid my hand upon thy mane — as I do here. — Byron. 



♦Conjunctions according to full model. 



196 



ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



CHAPTER X. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

1. Definition. — An Interjection is a word used to 
express a simple emotion of the mind. 

Examples. — 1. Oh, bitter day! that brings the loss of trust. 

2. This deed, alas! can never be forgiven. 

3. My pretty pets have flown away, ah ! me. 

Here the words "oh," "alas," and "ah," are used to express 
simple emotions of the speaker. 

Remark I. — Simple emotions are in the nature of ideas, and 
are expressed by single words — interjections. Complex emo- 
tions are in the nature of thoughts, and are generally expressed 
by exclamatory sentences. 

Remark 2. — The word "interjection" means thrown between; 
that is, thrown between the other words of a sentence. But 
the interjection may stand at the beginning or end of a sen- 
tence, as well as between the component parts. 

List of the Principal Interjections. 



Adieu, 


Begone, 


Hail, 


Huzza, 


Ah, 


Bravo, 


Halloo, 


Lo, 


Aha, 


Farewell, 


Hark, 


o, 


Ahoy, 


Faugh, 


Heigh-ho, 


Oh, 


Alack, 


Fie, 


Hey, 


Pshaw, 


Alas, 


Fudge, 


Hist, 


Tush, 



Avast, 
Avaunt, 



Good - by, 
Ha, 



Ho, 
Hurra, 



Welladay, 
Zounds. 



ETYMOLOGY. — THE INTERJECTION: PARSING. 197 

Remark I. — Other parts of speech, especially verbs, nouns, 
and pronouns, may be used as interjections. 

Examples. — 1. Behold! the shadows lengthen. 
- 2. Shame! that a son should break his mother's heart. 
S. What! does the traitor still enter the Senate House? 

Here the verb "behold," the noun "shame," and the pro- 
noun "what," are used as interjections. 

Remark 2. — On the other hand, interjections are sometimes 
used as nouns. 

Example. — He w T as careful to utter an ah or two. 

Here the word "ah" is used as a noun. 

Remark 3. — From the nature of the interjection it will be 
seen that this part of speech has no syntactical connection 
with the rest of the sentence. 



IV. PARSING. 

ORDER OF PARSING THE INTERJECTION. 

2. The order of parsing an interjection is: 

1. An Interjection, and why; 

2. A Rule of Syntax. 

MODEL FOR PARSING THE INTERJECTION. 

Hark ! the trumpet sounds ! 

Hark is an interjection, because it is used to express a simple 
emotion of the speaker; having no grammatical depend- 
ence, according to a rule of syntax which requires that an 
interjection shall be without syntactical connection. 

Remark. — All interjections may be parsed by this model. 



198 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Parse all the words in the following sentences : 

1. Lo ! Caesar is afraid. 

2. Hist ! I hear the sound of footsteps in the dark. 

3. Alas ! for the rarity 
Of Christian charity 

Under the sun. — Hood. 

4. Break, break, break, 

At the foot of thy crags, O Sea ! 
But the tender grace of a day that is dead 
Will never come back to me. — Tennyson. 

5. "What ! will the aspiring blood of Lancaster 
Sink in the ground ? — Shakespeare. 

0. Clang, clang ! the massive anvils ring ; 
Clang, clang! a hundred hammers swing; 
Like the thunder- rattle of a tropic sky 
The mighty blows still multiply, — 

Clang, clang! 
Say, brothers of the dusky brow, 
What are your strong arms forging now? — Anonymous. 

7. The fiery- footed barb 

That pounds the pampas, and the lily- bells 
That hang above the brooks, present the world 
With no apology for being there. — Holland. 

8. The Alleghanies, as they listened, opened their barriers 
that the loud call might pass through to the hardy riflemen 
on the Holston, the Watauga, and the French Broad. Ever 
renewing its strength, powerful enough even to create a com- 
monwealth, it breathed its inspiring word to the first settlers 
of Kentucky; so that hunters who made their halt in the 
matchless valley of the Elkhorn, commemorated the nine- 
teenth day of April by naming their encampment Lexing- 
ton. — Bancroft. 



part n. 



SYNTAX. 



CHAPTER XL 

FIRST PRINCIPLES. 

1. Syntax is the science which treats of the relations 
of words to each other in sentences. 

Remark I. — As an Art, Syntax treats of constructing sen- 
tences according to the Laws and Usage of the English Lan- 
guage. 

Remark 2. — It will be seen that Syntax as an art is based 
on Syntax as a science; the former is the practical applica- 
tion of the latter. 

Remark 3. — By " constructing sentences" is meant the proc- 
ess of putting together words and combinations of words in 
such manner as to express complete thoughts. 

Remark 4. — Mere combinations or assemblages of words do 
not constitute sentences. The words must be put into a cer- 
tain logical relation with each other in order to become a 
sentence. 

Examples. — 1. Mountains bears and ferocious other are 
Sierra Nevada in the found animals grizzly. 

Here the assemblage of words expresses no thought, and 

therefore does not constitute a sentence. 

(199) 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. Grizzly tears and other ferocious animals are found in 
the Sierra Nevada mountains. 

Here the same words are so arranged as to have a logical 
relation to each other. They express a thought, and therefore 
constitute a sentence. 

2. Language is an assemblage of sentences in proper 
relation with each other. (See pages 7, 8.) 

Extract. — Rip Van Winkle threw himself on a green knoll that 
crowned the brow of the precipice. For some time he lay mus- 
ing on the scene. Evening was gradually advancing; the mount- 
ains began to throw their long blue shadows over the valleys. 
He saw that it would be dark before he could reach the village, 
and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering 
Dame Van Winkle's wrath. — Irving. 

This paragraph is made up of ten sentences : * 

1. Rip Van Winkle threw himself on a knoll ; 2. That crowned 
the brow of the precipice ; 3. He lay musing ; 4. Evening was ad- 
vancing; 5. The mountains began to throw their shadows ; 6. He 
saw ; 7. It would be dark ; 8. He could reach the village ; 9. He 
heaved a sigh ; 10. He thought of encountering Dame Van Win- 
kle's wrath. 

All written or spoken language may in like manner be re- 
solved into sentences. 

EXERCISE. 

Select three paragraphs and resolve them into sentences. 

3. Principle I. — Every sentence maybe separated log- 
ically into the parts of which it is composed. 

Examples. — 1. Stars twinkle. 

Here the sentence consists of two parts — the noun "stari" 
and the verb "twinkle." 



• For difference between sentences and clauses, see page 



SYNTAX. — FIRST PRINCIPLES. 201 

2. The moon shines brightly. 

Here the sentence consists of four parts : two principal 
parts — namely, the noun "moon 7 ' and the verb "shines;" 
and two subordinate parts — namely, the article "the" and 
the adverb "brightly." 

3. Black haws grow in the forest. 

Here the sentence consists of two principal parts — the noun 
"haws" and the verb " grow ; " and of two subordinate parts — 
the adjective "black" and the adverbial clause "in the forest.' 7 

The adverbial clause "in the forest' 7 consists of three parts: 
the preposition "in, 77 the article "the, 77 and the noun "forest. 77 

4. The logical resolution of a sentence into the parts 
which compose it is called Analysis. 

5. Principle 2. — Words, phrases, and clauses may be 
put together in such a way as to constitute .sentences. 

Examples. — 1. The words, The of America system is pub- 
lic of hope best her schools, — may be so put together as to con- 
stitute this sentence : The best hope of America is her system 
of public schools. 

2. The words, For I or the sink am swim or live survive 
Declaration perish or die, — may be so put together as to con- 
stitute this sentence : Sink or swim, live or die, survive 
ish, I am for the Declaration. 

6. The process of putting words together so as to con- 
stitute sentences, is called Synthesis. 

7. Syntax, or the Science which treats of the Relations 
of Words, will therefore be considered under two heads: 

I. Analysis— Which treats of the logical resolution of sen- 
tences into the parts of which they are composed. 

II. Synthesis — Which treats of the putting together of words, 
phrases, and clauses, so as to constitute sentences. 



202 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



CHAPTER XIL 

ANALYSIS. 
I. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

1. Analysis is the logical resolution of sentences into 
the parts of which they are composed. 

2. Sentences are divided, according to their significa- 
tion, into four classes: I. Declarative; II. Inter- 
rogative; III. Imperative; IV. Exclamatory. 

1. Those sentences in which action or being is simply as- 
serted of some subject are called Declarative Sentences. 

Examples. — 1. The flowers fade. 

2. Prosperity gladdens the human heart. 

3. A resolute will conquers difficulties. 

In these sentences the verbs "fade," "gladdens," and "con- 
quers," simply assert action of their respective subjects, and 
the sentences are therefore Declarative sentences. 

II. Those sentences which are used to ask questions are called 
Interrogative Sentences. 

Examples.— 1. What is the population of the city? 

2. Did you ever explore a coal mine? 

3. Was the story true or false? 

These sentences, being in the form of questions, are called 
Interrogative sentences. 

Remark. — Many sentences are declarative inform, but inter- 
rogative in meaning. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: SENTENCES. 203 

Examples. — 1. He thinks himself well again? 
2. The visitors will return to-morrow? 

These sentences, though declarative in form, are interroga- 
tive in meaning. 

III. Those sentences which are used to express command, 
exhortation, or entreaty, are called Imperative Sentences. 

Examples.— 1. Come to the festal board to-night. 

2. Forget not the sorrows of the poor. 

3. Let me be a sharer in the strife. 

These sentences express command or entreaty, and are Im- 
perative sentences. 

Remark. — All sentences containing verbs in the imperative 
mode (see page 128) are imperative sentences. 

IV. Those sentences which are used to express thoughts as 
exclamations , are called Exclamatory Sentences. 

Examples. — 1. How soars the eagle through the clouds! 
2. What reckless folly marked the young man's course ! 

Here the thoughts are expressed as exclamations, and the 
sentences are Exclamatory sentences. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out in Gray's Elegy the four kinds of sentences. 

2. Write five Declarative sentences. 

3. Write five Interrogative sentences. 

4. Write three Imperative sentences. 

5. Write three Exclamatory sentences. 

3. Sentences are divided, according to their form, into 
three classes: I. Simple; II. Complex; III. Com- 
pound. 

I. A simple sentence is one in which there are but two 
parts: first, that of which something is affirmed — called the 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Subject; and, secondly, that which is asserted of the subject — 
called the Predicate. 

Examples. — 1. Flowers fade. 

2. Fishes swim. 

3. Men are talking. 

4. Snow is white. 

5. Goats are animals. 

6. Cities have been destroyed. 

Here the italicized words are the subjects, and the remain- 
ing parts the predicates, of the respective sentences. 

Remark. — It will be seen that the predicate sometimes con- 
sists of one wordy and sometimes of more than one word. 

II. A complex sentence is one consisting of a principal and 
a subordinate sentence united in a single statement. 

Examples. — 1. I came that I might see. 

2. The ladies w r ere frightened when they entered the cavern. 

3. We sang while the sleigh-bells jingled. 

Each of these sentences consists of a principal and a subor- 
dinate sentence. The principal sentences are "I came, 77 "the 
ladies were frightened/ 7 and "we sang; 77 the italicized parts 
are the subordinate sentences. 

Remark. — It will be seen that in complex sentences the sub- 
ordinate part is attached to the principal part by one of the sub- 
ordinate conjunctions. (See pages 191, 192.) 

III. A compound sentence is one consisting of tivo or more 
simple or complex sentences united by a coordinative conjunc- 
tion. (See page 190.) 

Examples. — 1. Spring came, and the birds sang again. 

2. Morning returned, but morning brought no day. 

3. He reads no books, yet claims superior wisdom. 

4. We knew that he had deceived us, but still we trusted 
him. 

In examples 1 and 2, simple sentences are joined by the co- 



SYNTAX. -ANALYSIS: SENTENCES. 205 

ordinative conjunctions "and" and "but;" in example 3, the 
subject of the verb "claims" (the pronoun he understood) is 
omitted, and the two simple sentences are joined by "yet;" 
in example 4, the first sentence — a complex sentence, — and 
the second — a simple sentence — are joined by the conjunction 
u but." All four of the examples are compound sentences. 

Remark I. — In many compound sentences there is but one 
verb with two or more subjects — thus: Charley and Tom have 
gone to market = Charley has gone and Tom has gone ; Fields 
and pastures are covered with snow— Fields are covered and 
pastures are covered, etc. 

Remark 2. — In many compound sentences there is but one 
subject with two or more predicates — thus: I came and con- 
quered — I came and I conquered ; The man rose, stood a mo- 
ment, and went out = The man rose, the man stood a moment, 
and the man went out. 

Remark 3. — Some compound sentences have two or more 
subjects and two or more common predicates — thus: Men, 
women, and children turned pale, cried out, and ran ; Days, 
weeks, and months come, go, and are forgotten. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Classify, according to signification and form, the follow- 
ing sentences: 

1. Industry is the. road to wealth. 

2. Grace was in all her steps. 

3. Did this in Csesar seem ambitious? 

4. I knew that the treasure was hidden in a thicket. 

5. He who climbs a precipice must not look below. 

6. We returned to the river, but the boats were gone. 

7. She gave me of the tree and I did eat. 

II. 1 . Write five Simple sentences. 

2. Write five Complex sentences. 

3. Write five Compound sentences. 



206 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 



II. ELEMENTS. 

4. The ultimate parts of which a sentence is composed 
are called its Elements. 

5. The elements of which a sentence is composed are 
of two kinds: 

1. Those parts which are necessary to the existence of the 
sentence — called Essential Elements; i 

II. Those which are not necessary to the existence of a sen- 
tence — occurring in some sentences, and not in others — called 
Accidental Elements. 

Examples. — 1. In the fall the birds fly southward. 

2. The name of Washington will ever be remembered. 

3. All men desire happiness. 

In these examples the italicized words are essential ele- 
ments; that is, they are the parts without which the sen- 
tences could not exist. All other words in the examples are 
accidental elements; that is, they are parts not necessary to 
the existence of the sentences. 

6. The Essential elements of a sentence are two in 

number : 

I. That of which something is affirmed in the sentence — 
called the Subject. 

II. That which is affirmed of the subject — called the Predi- 
cate. 

7. The Accidental elements of a sentence are of four 
hinds : 

I. Those parts of the sentence which denote the object of 
the action expressed by a verb — called Objective Elements. 

Example. — The farmer gathers the harvest. 

Here the noun "harvest" denotes the object of the action 



SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS: ELEMENTS. 207 

expressed by the verb " gathers,' 7 and is the objective element 
in the sentence. 

II. Those parts of a sentence which modify or limit the 
meaning of some other parts — called Modifying Elements. 

Example. — The merry girls went laughingly to school. 

Here the adjective "merry," qualifying the noun "girls," 
and the adverb " laughingly," qualifying the verb "went," 
are modifying elements in the sentence. The expression "to 
school" is also a modifying element limiting the meaning of 
the verb "went." 

The modifying elements in sentences are of two kinds: 

1. Adjective Elements, — or those winch modify or limit 
the meaning of some noun or pronoun in the sentence ; and, 

2. Adverbial Elements,— or those which modify the 
meaning of some verb, adverb, or adjective in the sentence. 

III. Those parts of sentences which are used to join other 
parts together — called Connective Elements. 

Examples. — 1. The man entered the car and sat down. 
2. The home of Irving was on the Hudson. 

Here the conjunction "and" and the prepositions "of" and 
"on" are used to join the parts of the sentences, and are con- 
nective elements. 

IV. Those parts of sentences which have no syntactical re- 
lation with other parts — called Independent Elements. 

Examples. — 1. Alas ! how much of human effort is wasted ! 
2. O King, live forever ! 

Here the word "alas" and the expression "O King" have 
no syntactical relations, and are independent elements in the 
respective sentences. 

Remark. — The above classification of elements is according 
to their meaning. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISES. 

I. Point out the various Elements in the following sentences : 

1. The patient oxen drag the cedar logs. 

2. At evening the dull -eyed bat flaps drowsily his wings. 

3. St. Agnes' eve, — ah! bitter chill it was. 

II. 1. Write three sentences illustrating Essential elements. 

2. Illustrate Adjective elements and Adverbial elements with 
three sentences each. 

3. Write three sentences containing Objective elements. 

4. Write two sentences containing Independent elements. 

8. As it regards their form, elements are divided into 
three classes: 

1. Those elements which consist of a single word — called 
Word Elements; 

2. Those which consist of a collection of words not making 
complete sense — called Phrase or Adjunct Elements; and, 

3. Those wmich consist of a collection of words making com- 
plete sense — called Clause Elements. 

Examples of' Word Elements.— The lamp burns bright- 
ly; Too much w r ealth corrupts society; The soldiers guarded 
the camp; All men are created equal. 

In these sentences all the elements are word elements. 

Examples of Phrase or Adjunct Elements.— We ar- 
rived in the night; With the break of day the two travelers 
arose and started for the West; Alarmed at the prospect, we 
could not proceed ; We were all eager to reach the Highlands. 

Here the italicized parts are phrase or adjunct elements. 

Examples of Clause Elements. — The man who lives on 
hope shall die of despair; He expected that help would arrive; 
Why we were detained, nobody could tell us. 

In these sentences the italicized parts are clause elements. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 209 



9. Scheme of Elements: 



According to 
meaning, into: 



Elements— 

Divided, < 



I. Essential: 

1. Subject. 

2. Predicate. 

II. Accidental: 

1. Objective. 

2. Modifying.... 

3. Connective. 

4. Independent 



1. Adjective. 

2. Adverbial. 



I. Word Elements. 

According to 

form, into: ( n. Phrase or Adjunct Elem'ts. 

III. Clause Elements. 



III. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 



10. A Simple Sentence is one which contains but one 
subject and one predicate. 

Examples. — 1. The lark sings 

2. The bees are swarming. 

3. The merchant sells goods. 

4. Brevity is the soul of wit. 

5. Forests of pine abound in Minnesota. 

6. The sad evidences of the wreck were seen on all sides* 

Each of these sentences has but one subject and one predi- 
cate, and is therefore a simple sentence. 



11. The Subject of a sentence is that of which some- 
thing is predicated. 
18 



(See pages ffi,ll&.) 143 -+J+ 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Examples. — 1. A rose is blooming in the garden. 
2. Africa has vast deserts of sand. 

Here "rose" and "Africa" denote the things of which some- 
thing is predicated, and are the subjects of the sentences. 

12. According to its form, the subject of a simple sen- 
tence is either — 

1. A noun — that is, the name of some thing; 

2. A pronoun — that is, a word used for a noun ; 

3. An infinitive — that is, the verbal noun; 

4. A present participle — used as a noun; or, 

5. Some sign or character — the name of which is a noun. 

Examples. — 1. The days grow short in winter. 

2. He finished the work yesterday. 

3. To die is not always a calamity. 

4. The passing of counterfeits is forbidden by law. 

5. + signifies addition. 

In these simple sentences the italicized words and the sign 
+ illustrate the five kinds of subjects. 

13. The Predicate of a sentence is that which is as- 
serted of the subject. (See page A 204.)///-^^^ 

14. According to its form, the predicate of a simple 
sentence is either — 

1. A verb only; 

2. A verb (generally the copula) and a noun; or, 

3. A verb (generally the copula) and an adjective. * 

Examples. — 1. The memory of the patriots still lives. 
2. Prince Bismarck is a statesman. 



*In Logic the copula is not a part of the predicate. The sentence, Tfie bird 
flies, is not in the syllogistic form until written thus: The bird is flying. But in 
Grammar, which has to do with the forms of words, The bird flics is a correct 
expression: " flies" is the predicate, and it includes the copula, being equal to is 
flying. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 211 

3. The clouds at sunset are beautiful. 

In these sentences the italicized words illustrate the three 
kinds of simple predicates. 

15. According to its meaning the subject of a simple 
sentence is of two kinds: 

1. The grammatical subject — that is, the single word or ex- 
pression of which something is predicated, without the parts 
which modify it. 

II. The logical subject — that is, the grammatical subject, to- 
gether with its modifying parts. 

Examples. — 1. The trees cast their leaves in autumn. 

2. The flocks return to the fold at night -fall. 

3. The bell was heard tinkling in the forest. 

Here the nouns "trees," " flocks," and "bell," are the gram- 
matical subjects of the respective sentences. 

4. The maple -trees on the hill have cast their leaves. 

5. The shephercVs bleating flocks return to the fold. 

6. The tinkling bell of silvery tone was heard. 

Here the italicized parts are the logical subjects of the re- 
spective sentences. 

Remark I. — If there are no modifying parts in the subject 
of a sentence, then the grammatical subject and the logical 
subject are identical. 

Example. — Men do not gather figs of thistles. 

Here the noun " men " is both the grammatical and the 
logical subject of the sentence. 

Remark 2. — If there are modifying parts In the subject of 
a sentence, then some particular word or expression in the 
logical subject will be the grammatical subject. 

Example. — The worst kind of an enemy is a pretended 
friend. 



212 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

In the preceding example the grammatical subject is "kind," 
and the logical subject, " the worst kind of an enemy." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the Logical and Grammatical subjects in the 
Exercises on page 117. 

2. Write five sentences, underscoring the Grammatical sub- 
jects. 

3. Write five sentences, underscoring the Logical subjects. 

16. According to its meaning the predicate of a sim- 
ple sentence is of two kinds: 

1. The grammatical predicate— that is, the single word or ex- 
pression which asserts Something of the subject. 

II. The logical predicate — that is, the grammatical predicate, 
together with its modifying parts. 

ExampleSo — 1. The flowers of spring wither. 

2. The steamer from Liverpool has arrived. 

3. Daniel Webster was an orator. 

In these examples " wither," "has arrived," and "was ora- 
tor," are the grammatical predicates of the sentences. 

4. The cry was plainly heard in the street. 

5. We reached the Coliseum at sunset. 

6. The stranger tvas agreeably surprised at his reception. 

In these examples the italicized parts are the logical pred- 
icates of the sentences. 

Remark I. — If there are no modifying parts in the predicate 
of a sentence, then the grammatical predicate and the logical 
predicate are identical. 

Example. — The strongest animals survive. 

Here the verb "survive" is both the grammatical and the 
logical predicate of the sentence. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 213 

Remark 2. — If there are modifying parts in the predicate of 
a sentence, then some particular word or expression in the 
logical predicate Will be the grammatical predicate. 

Example. — The tall trees swayed back and forth in the 
storm. 

Here the grammatical predicate is "swayed," and the log- 
ical predicate is "swayed back and forth in the storm. 77 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the Grammatical and the Logical predicates in 
the Exercises on page 7(jL * // 

2. Write five sentences, underscoring the Grammatical pred- 
icates. 

3. Write live sentences, underscoring the Logical predicates. 

17. The Modifying elements in the subject of a simple 
sentence are : I. Adjective Elements ; II. Adjunct 
Elements; III. Possessive Elements; IV. Phrase 
Elements. 

1. The Adjective Elements in the subject of a simple sentence 
are such words as are used to modify or limit the meaning of 
the grammatical subject — that is, adjectives. 

Examples. — 1. Violent tornadoes are common in the tropics. 

2. Sober conduct is born of sober thought. 

3. The fairest fruit is least accessible. 

Here the adjectives "violent," "sober," "the," and "fair- 
est," are adjective elements in the subjects of the sentences. 

II. The Adjunct Elements in the subject of a sentence are 
those combinations of words which are so closely joined to the 
grammatical subject that they can not be omitted without de- 
stroying the sense of the expression . * 



»Au Adjunct is a combination of words added to some part of a sentence to 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Examples. — 1. The love of money is the root of evil. 

2. A tendency towards decay was seen in the empire. 

3. A little with contentment is better than great riches. 

Here the expressions "of money," "towards decay," and 
"with contentment," are adjunct elements in the subjects of 
the respective sentences. 

Remark I. — Sometimes the adjunct element may itself con- 
tain an adjective element. 

Example. — Adherence to a fixed purpose was a part of 
Napoleon's policy. 

Here the adjective element "fixed" is a part of the phrase 
element "to a fixed purpose." 

Remark 2. — Sometimes an adjunct element in the subject 
consists of an infinitive. 

Example. — Eagerness to succeed was shown in all his 
conduct. 

III. The Possessive Elements in the subject of a sentence are 
nouns or pronouns in the possessive case joined to the gram- 
matical subject. 

Examples. — 1. Man's days are as a hand -breadth. 

2. The merchant's profits were wasted in speculation. 

3. His creditors were the chief sufferers. 

Here the nouns "man 7 s" and "merchant's" and the pro- 
noun "his" are possessive elements ill the subjects of the re- 
spective sentences. -» 

Remark. — Sometimes a possessive element is contained in 
an adjunct or phrase modifying the subject. 



develop the meaning of that particular part, which would otherwise be incom- 
plete; as, Love of fame has made some men insane. If the adjunct "of fame" 
be omitted the sense of the sentence is destroyed. An adjunct is logically Insep- 
arable into parts. It expresses but one idea, and that idea limits the meaning of 
the word with which it is associated, and from which it cart not be detached. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 215 

Example. — Anxiety about his trial was expressed by the 
prisoner. 

Here the possessive element "his" is contained in the ad- 
junct "about his trial. " 

IV. The Phrase Elements in the subject of a simple sentence 
are of three kinds: 

1. Adjective phrases — that is, such phrases as are introduced 
by adjectives, and joined to the grammatical subject. 

2. Participial phrases — that is, such phrases as are intro- 
duced by participles, and joined to the grammatical subject. 

3. Appositional phrases — that is, such phrases as contain 
some word or words in apposition with the grammatical sub- 
ject of the sentence. 

Examples. — 1. Greene, firm in his purpose, still pressed 
forward. 

2. The men, awakened by the alarm, sprang to their feet. 

3. They, the survivors, gathered around him. 

Here the italicized parts are phrases in the subjects of the 
respective sentences: the first, an adjective phrase; the sec- 
ond, a participial rjhrase; the third, an appositional phrase. 

Remark I. — Adjunct, possessive, and phrase elements, as well 
as adjectives proper, have a modifying influence upon the sub- 
ject of the sentences, and, for that reason, may all be included 
under the common class called Adjective elements. 

Remark 2. — Phrase elements have the nature of abridged 
sentences, and are logically separable into parts. The phrase 
may be detached from the sentence in which it occurs with- 
out destroying the sense of the expression. 

Example. — The man, astonished at what had occurred, 
stood still. 

In this example the participial phrase may be expanded 
into the sentence, ivho was astonished, etc. ; or the phrase may 
be omitted without destroying the sense of the expression. 



216 ENGLISH GEAMMXe. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the Modifying Elements in the subjects of the 
simple sentences in the Exercises, page 117. 

2. Write two simple sentences containing Adjective ele- 
ments in the subjects. 

3. Write two simple sentences containing Adjunct ele- 
ments in the subjects. 

4. Write two simple sentences containing Possessive ele- 
ments in the subjects. 

18, The Modifying elements in the predicate of 
a simple sentence are: I. Adverbial Elements; 
II. Objective Elements; III. Complementary 
Elements; IY. Adjunct Elements; V. Phrase 
Elements. 

1. The Adverbial Elements in the predicate of a simple sen- 
tence are those words which are used to modify the meaning 
of the grammatical predicate — that is, adverbs. 

Examples. — 1. The brooks in spring-time ripple merrily. 

2. The old chief strode angrily away. 

Here the adverbs "merrily," " angrily, " and "away," are 
adverbial elements in the predicates of the simple sentences. 

II. The Objective Elements in the predicates of simple sen- 
tences are such words or combinations of words as are the 
objects of transitive verbs. 

Examples. — 1. The keeper quickly opened the gate. 

2. A company of children began a song. 

3. The new teacher received him kindly. 

Here the nouns "gate 77 and "song 77 and the pronoun "him" 
are objective elements in the predicates of the sentences. 

III. The Complementary Elements in the predicate of a sim- 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 217 

pie sentence are such nouns or adjectives as are necessary to 
complete the sense after verbs of imperfect predication. 

Examples. — 1. Demosthenes became a great orator. 
2. The honeysuckles by the wall looked beautiful. 

Here the complementary words "orator" and "beautiful" 
are necessary to complete the sense alter the verbs "became" 
and "looked" — verbs of imperfect predication. 

IV. The Adjunct Elements in the predicate of a simple sen- 
tence are the same as the adjunct elements in the subject. 

Examples. — 1. We saw a swallow on the barn. 

2. The CafTres hunt ostriches through the desert. 

3, There is a rapture by the lonely shore. 

Here the italicized parts are adjunct elements in the pred- 
icates of the respective sentences. 

V. The Phrase Elements in the predicate of a simple sentence 
are the same as the phrase elements in the subject, with the ad- 
dition of the Causal Phrase, which occurs in the predicate only. 

Example. — We next went to see the tombs of the poets. 

Here the italicized part denotes the reason or purpose of the 
action expressed by the verb, and is called a causal phrase. 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Select a Lesson from the Reader, point out and name the 
modifying elements in the predicates of the simple sentences. 

2. Write two simple sentences containing Adverbial Ele- 
ments in the predicate. 

3. Write two simple sentences containing Objective Ele- 
ments in the predicates. 

4. Write two simple sentences containing Complementary 
Elements in the predicates. 

5. Illustrate the use of Adjunct and Phrase Elements in the 

predicates of simple sentences. 
19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

19. The Independent elements in a simple sentence 
are such words and expressions as have no syntactical 
connection with the other parts of the sentence. These 
are : 

1. Interjectional Elements — that is, such words as express sim- 
ple emotions of the mind. 

2. Vocative Elements — that is, such parts of the sentence as 
contain an address or invocation. 

3. Absolute Elements — that is, such participial clauses as are 
used independently. 

Examples.— 1. The ship, alas! with all on board, went 
down. 

2. The day, O happy fate ! broke bright and clear. 

3. Their guns being loaded, the hunters departed. 

Here the italicized parts are independent elements in the 
respective sentences: the first, an interjectional element; the 
second, a vocative element; and the third, an absolute ele- 
ment. 

20. The Connective elements in a simple sentence 
are those prepositions and conjunctions which are used 
to connect the dependent parts, or to express the rela- 
tion between them.* 

Examples. — 1. Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania, was 
made chairman. 

2. Lincoln, with his benevolent spirit and quaint manners, 
was greatly loved. 

Here the prepositions "of" and "with" and the conjunc- 
tion "and" are connective elements in the respective sen- 
tences 

21* A simple sentence may be abbreviated by the 



* The Relative pronoun, the office of which is also connective, can not occur 
in a simple sentence. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 219 

omission of some of its elements. This process is called 
Ellipsis. 

Examples. — 1. I will away to Rome = I will go away to 
Rome. 

2. Come to the moon-lit glen = Come thou to the moon-lit 
glen. 

Remark. — The part of the sentence omitted is necessary to 
the grammatical construction of the sentence, but not neces- 
sary to the sense. In parsing and analysis the element or 
elements omitted must be supplied. 

22. The ellipsis in a simple sentence is effected in 
several ways : 

1. By the omission of the subject of the sentence. 
Example. — Consider the lilies = Consider ye the lilies. 

II. By the omission of the predicate. 
Example. — Who comes here? 1 = 1 come here. 

III. By the omission of both subject and predicate. 

Examples. — 1. Revenge \=Let us seek revenge. 

2. Water ! = Give me water. 

IV. By the omission of the participle in absolute construc- 
tions. 

Example.— Bold in debate, Adams led in the discussion = 
Being bold in debate, etc. 

V. By the omission of connectives. 

Examples. — 1. I think you will be disappointed = I think 
that you will be disappointed. 

2. Hope, fear, anger, distrust, were surging within him=: 
Hope, fear, anger, and distrust were surging, etc. 

Xote. — It is customary, in a succession of nouns, to use the con- 
junction between the last two only. 



220 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 



ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 



23. The order of analysis for simple sentences is : 

1. A Simple Sentence, and why ; 

2. Declarative, Interrogative, etc., and why; 

3. Essential Elements, and why ; 

4. Accidental Elements, and why ; 

5. Grammatical Subject, and why ; 

6. Grammatical Predicate, and why ; 

7. Logical Subject, and why ; 

8. Logical Predicate, and why ; 

9. Modifying Elements of the Subject ; 

10. Modifying Elements of the Predicate ; 

11. Connective Elements and the parts connected; 

12. Independent Elements of the Sentence. 



MODEL FOR ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

I. Stars shine. 

Stars shine, is a simple sentence, because it contains a single 
statement ; declarative, because it expresses a thought as an 
assertion; the essential elements are " stars " and " shine,' 7 
because they are the parts without which the sentence could 
not exist ; accidental elements, none ; the grammatical sub- 
ject is u stars,'' because it is the particular word of which 
something is asserted ; the grammatical predicate is "shine," 
because it expresses that which is asserted of "stars;" the 
logical subject is identical with the grammatical subject, 
and the logical predicate with the grammatical predicate ; 
modifying elements, none ; connective elements, none ; in- 
dependent elements, none. 

II. Twinkling stars shine brightly in the sky. 
Twinkling stars shine, etc., is a simple sentence, because it con- 



SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS : THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 221 

tains a single statement; declarative, because it expresses a 
thought as an assertion; the essential elements are "stars" 
and "shine," etc.; the accidental elements are "twink- 
ling," "brightly," and "in the sky;" the grammatical sub- 
ject is "stars," because, etc.; the grammatical predicate is 
"shine," because, etc.; the logical subject is "twinkling 
stars," being the grammatical subject, together with its 
modifying parts; the logical predicate is "shine brightly 
in the sky," because it contains the wiiole predication ; 
the modifying element of the subject is "twinkling," an 
adjective element; the modifying elements of the predi- 
cate are "brightly," an adverbial element, and "in the 
sky," an adjunct element consisting of the preposition 
"in" and its regimen;* the connective element is "in," 
a prepositional element; the independent elements, none. 

II. A fool, eager to be heard, speaks all his 
mind at once. 

A fool . . . speaks, etc., is a simple sentence, etc. ; declarative, etc. ; 
the essential elements are "fool" and "speaks;" the acci- 
dental elements are "eager to be heard," "all his mind," 
and "at once;" the grammatical subject is "fool;" the 
grammatical predicate is "speaks;" the logical subject is 
"a fool, eager to be heard ; " the logical predicate is "speaks 
all his mind at once;" the modifying elements of the sub- 
ject are the adjective element "a" and the adjective phrase 
element "eager to be heard ; " the phrase element contains 
the infinitive adjunct "to be heard;" the modifying ele- 
ments of the predicate are the objective element "all his 
mind" and the adjunct element "at once;" the objective 
element contains the adjective element "all" and the pos- 
sessive element "his; " the adjunct element consists of the 
preposition "at 7 ' and the regimen "once;" the connective 
element is "in;" the independent elements, none. 



*The regimen of a preposition is the part of the sentence which is governed 
by it. 



222 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

IV. Clay, resuming the argument, addressed the Sen- 
ate at great length to convince them of the wis- 
dom of the proposed measure. 

Clay, resuming, etc., is a simple sentence, etc.; declarative, etc., 
the essential elements are "Clay" and " addressed ; " the ac- 
cidental elements are " resuming the argument, 77 etc.; the 
grammatical subject, "Clay;" the grammatical predicate, 
"addressed; 77 the logical subject, "Clay, resuming the ar- 
gument; 77 the logical predicate, "addressed the Senate at 
great, 77 etc.; the modifying element of the subject is the 
participial phrase "resuming the argument; 77 the phrase 
contains the objective element "argument; 77 the modify- 
ing elements of the predicate are the objective element 
"Senate, 77 the adjunct element "at great length, 77 and the 
phrase element "to convince, 77 etc. — a causal phrase; the 
phrase contains the objective element "them, 77 the adjunct 
elements "of the wisdom 77 and "of the proposed meas- 
ure; 77 the adjunct "of the proposed measure 77 contains the 
adjective element "proposed; 77 the connective elements 
are "at, 77 "of, 77 and "of 77 — prepositional elements; inde- 
pendent elements, none. 

V. Break on thy cold, gray stones, O sea! 

Break on thy cold, etc., is a simple sentence, etc. ; imperative, be- 
cause it expresses a command ; the essential elements are 
thou understood and "break; 77 the accidental elements are 
"on thy cold, 77 etc. ; the grammatical subject is thou under- 
stood; the grammatical predicate is "break;' 7 the logical 
subject is thou understood; the logical predicate is "break 
on thy, 77 etc.; modifying elements of subject, none; the 
modifying element of the predicate is the adjunct element 
"on thy cold, gray stones; 77 the adjunct contains the ad- 
jective elements "cold 77 and "gray, 77 and the possessive 
element "thy; 77 the connective element is "on, 77 a prepo- 
sitional element; the independent elements are "O, 77 an 
interjectional element, and "sea, 77 a vocative element. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 223 

VI. Egeria, the Roman nymph, became a 
fountain of water. 

Egeria, the Roman, etc., is a simple sentence, etc.; declarative, 
etc.; essential elements, u Egeria' 7 and "became;" gram- 
matical subject, "Egeria;" grammatical predicate, "be- 
came;" the modifying element of the subject is "the Ro- 
man nymph," an appositional phrase; the phrase contains 
the adjective elements "the" and "Roman;" the modi- 
fying element of the predicate is "a fountain of water," a 
complementary element; the complement contains the 
adjunct "of water;" the connective element is "of;" in- 
dependent elements, none. 

Remark. — According to the foregoing models, and with slight 
variations therefrom, all simple sentences may be analyzed. 

24. The Analysis of sentences may be represented to 
the eye by means of Diagrams. 

MODELS FOB ANALYSIS BY DIAGBAM. 



I. A brown thrush sang sweetly in a hawthorn bush 
covered with blossoms. 




—covered 




Explanation. — 1. Essential elements are set in capitals. 

2. Accidental elements are set in Roman type. 

3. The logical subject is divided from the logical predicate by the 
heavy vertical bar. 



224 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. Subordinate elements are placed in subordinate relation, 

5. Connective elements are set in links between the connected parts. 

6. Grammatical government* is indicated by the waving line. 

7. Grammatical modification or limitation is indicated by the plain 
line, the modifying part being subordinate to the part modified. 

8. The complementary relation, where it exists, is denoted by a dot- 
ted line. 

9. The unity of the adjunct element is indicated by the brace. 



II. I met a little cottage girl. 



.MEL 



girl. 

cottage 

little 



a 



In this example the objective element, "girl," is introduced. 
The development of the diagram is wholly on the side of the 
predicate 



III. Napoleon, seeing the mistake of the Austrians, and con- 
fident of victory, gave the order for battle. 



NAPOLEON. 

seeing— — mistake 

Lthe 



and 



-confident 



of — —Anstrians, 
Lthe 



.GAVE order 

_the 



for ~~ — battle. 



of —victory, 



*For meaning of "grammatical government," see page 2i f J. 



SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 225 

TV. Some mourning words she spoke 

• In solemn tenor and deep organ tone. 



SHE. 



JPOKE. 



-tenor — and — tone. 



.solemn 



words 
.mourning 
some 



_organ 



V. Silver and gold have I none. 

HAVE ___gold — I and I — silver 



In the last example u none" = ?io. Regarding "none" as an 
indefinite pronoun, the analysis is as follows : 

I H AYE_™™__ji<me 

| of I — siker — land] gold. 

In this case the connective "of" is understood. 

VI. A comic romance is a comic epic poem in prose. 

_comie 



_epic 



-prose. 



Here "poem" is a part of the grammatical predicate of the 
sentence. 



* For grammatical relation of " poem " and " is," see Sp. Rule I, page 251. 



226 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



VII. Every touch of real detail and minute color in the study 
serves to heighten and complete the finished picture. 



TOUCH. 

I 



.every 



-.SERVES to heighten — I and | — complete^ 



~d e t a i 1 — I an d 1 — color 



_real 



I 



minute. 



J 



picture, 
finished 
the 



Lthe 

Here the infinitive adjunct "to heighten" is complementary 
to the grammatical predicate "serves." In such a case the dot- 
ted line may be drawn vertically, as follows : 



_„.to # heighten— 



picture. 
finished 

_the 



VIII. Oh, ever thus since childhood's hour 
I *ve seen my fondest hopes decay. 

L_ „™™™JAVE SEEN hopes (to) decay 

Oh ■ _ever —fondest 

-thus _my 

I since |— hour 

I childhood's 

In this example note the detached position of the independ- 
ent element "oh ; " also the supplying of "to" in the infinitive 
phrase element, and the full form of the verb "have seen" for 
"Pve seen." 



SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS: THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 227 



IX. Thick darkness, like the black curtain of everlasting night, 
gathered around the base of the mountain. 



DARKNESS. 

-thick 

_like 1 to I 



.GATHERED 



-curtain 



around * 



base 

{_ 

_the 



of 
_the '— ' 



-night, 
I everlasting 



-mountain. 

Lthe 



In this example note the supplying of the connective "to" 
after the adjective element "like." Otherwise "like" may 
govern "curtain" directly. (See p. OOO) 

X. Old John of Gaunt is grievous sick, my lord. 

JOHN IS SICK 

my lord 



_old 



of 



-Gaunt 



-gneTous 



The diagram of this example may be constructed thus : 
JOHN OF GAUNT IS SICK 



my lord 



-grievous 



XL From the highly finished but unsympathetic pages of Pope 
almost every species of wit and pleasantry can be illustrated. 

JAN BE ILLUSTRATED 

from — 



—every 
—almost 



-wit and pleasantry 



MjU — 

unsympathetic- 
_the . 



but 



-finished 
Lhiorhh 



228 ENGLISH GEAMMAR 

Remark. — With the foregoing models, and slight variations 
therefrom, the diagrams of all simple sentences may be pro- 
duced. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

I. According to the models give the Oral and the Diagram 
Analysis of the following simple sentences : 

1. Into the valley of Death 

Rode the six hundred. — Tennyson. 

2. One morn a Peri at the gate 

Of Eden stood disconsolate. — Moore. 

3. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth 

Of simple beauty and rustic health. — Whittier. 

4. Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. — Gray. 

5. And Harold stands upon this place of skulls, 

The grave of France, the deadly Waterloo. — Byron. 

6. The method of a fly's walking on the ceiling has been 
much discussed by men of science. 

7. Who can realize the vast system of planetary and stellar 
worlds ? 

8. In times past the suggestion of such an instrument as the 
telephone would have excited the incredulity and ridicule of 
all classes. 

9. The Yellowstone National Park, in the north-western cor- 
ner of Wyoming Territory, embraces in a small area the most 
varied and picturesque scenery in the world. 

10. Many men of only moderate means foolishly adopt a style 
of living excessively extravagant and totally at variance with 
the theory of honest dealing in their business. 

11. The elevated railways of New York seem to have fur- 
nished a natural and satisfactory solution of the difficult and 
perplexing question of the rapid transfer of large crowds from 
place to place in great cities. 



SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 229 

IV. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

23. A complex sentence is one consisting of a principal 
and a subordinate sentence united in a single statement. 

Examples. — 1. He had a fever when he was in Spain. 

2. They are never alone who have noble thoughts. 

3. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. 

Each of these examples consists of a principal and a subor- 
dinate sentence united in a single statement, and is therefore 
a complex sentence. 

Remark i. — In many instances the subordinate part stands 
first in a complex sentence. 

Examples. — 1. If you have tears, prepare to shed them. 
2. While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand. 

Here the subordinate parts stand first in the sentences. 

Remark 2. — Sometimes the subordinate part of a complex 
sentence stands between the elements of the principal part. 

Examples. — 1. Heroes, ivhen their country calls, obey. 
2. They who see no danger know no fear. 

24. The principal and subordinate parts of a complex 
sentence are called Clauses. 

1. That part of a complex sentence which embodies the lead- 
ing statement in the sentence is called the principal or independ- 
ent clause. 

IT. That part of a complex sentence which embodies the sub- 
ordinate statement is called the subordinate or dependent clause. 

Examples. — 1. He was a man that had seen many lands. 

2. He had the gold for ivhich he had so long labored. 

Here the parts in Roman type are the principal, and the 
parts in Italics the dependent clauses in the respective sen- 
tences. 



230 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Remark I. — The subordinate clause in a complex sentence 
may itself contain a subordinate clause. 

Example. — The stream that turned the mill at which the 
traveler had HALTED, was muddy and swollen. j 

Here the clause "at which the traveler had halted' 1 is sub- 
ordinate to the dependent clause "that turned the mill." 

Remark 2. — Subordinate clauses are joined to principal clauses 
by some of the connective elements — prepositions, relative pro- 
nouns, conjunctions. 

25. The subordinate clauses of complex sentences are 
of five kinds: 

1. The Relative Clause, — that is, a clause containing a rela- 
tive pronoun. 

Examples. — 1. The man who waits on fortune will die 
waiting. 

2. Bryant, whom all men honored, is dead. 

3. The road by which we were to return, was impassable. 

II. The Causal Clause, — that is, a clause introduced by a 
causal conjunction (see page 192), and denoting the reason or 
purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. 

Examples.— 1. Our fathers sought these shores that they 
might escape from persecution, 

2. We sow the seed because we believe in a coming summer. 

III. The Hypothetical Clause, — that is, a clause introduced 
by one of the conjunctions peculiar to the subjunctive mode 
(see page 126), and expressing the condition on which the 
principal clause of the sentence depends. 

Examples. — 1. If I were not Alexander, I would be Di- 
ogenes. 

2. Obey the laws of nature lest thou become unnatural. 

IV. The Adverbial Clause, — that is, a clause introduced by 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 231 

a conjunctive adverb (see page 175), and holding the relation 
of an adverb to the verb in the principal clause. 

Examples. — 1. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 
2. When he had resigned his command, Washington re- 
turned to Mount Vernon. 

V. The Appositional Clause, — that is, a clause in apposition 
with one of the essential elements in the principal clause of 
the sentence. 

Example. — The proverb, A fool and his money are soon 
parted, is many times exemplified. 

Remark I. — Any one of the above clauses may be an essen- 
tial element— that is, either subject or predicate — of the sen- 
tence in which it occurs. 

Examples. — 1. Think of to-morrow, is a good maxim. 
2. His motto was, Never despair. 

Remark 2. — In all other cases the dependent clause, viewed 
in respect to the sentence in which it occurs, is an accidental 
element — that is, objective, modifying, etc. 

Examples. — 1. I knew that the merchant had returned. 
2. A house that is unpainted is an advertisement of unthrift. 

In the first of these examples the dependent clause is an 
objective element ; in the last, a modifying element. 

26. Complex sentences are of many forms, according 
to the nature and number of the clauses which they 
contain. 

I. The first form of the complex sentence is that which 
contains one principal and one subordinate clause. 

Example. — He knew that his hour had come. 

II. The second form is that which contains two or more 
subordinate clauses. 



232 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

Example. —He that hath friends hath something of ivhich 
he may ivell be proud. 

III. The third form is that which contains clauses subordi- 
nate to other subordinate clauses. 

Example. — Men who know that they are wrong are 
always weak. 

Remark. — The subordination of clauses may extend to the 
third or even fourth degree. 

Example.— Men ivho feel that they are right in what 
they undertake, are always strong. 

IV. The fourth form is that which contains a clause as one 
of its essential elements. 

Example. — Men are created equal, is the language of the 
Declaration. 

Remark. — This classification might be considerably extended 
by adding other varieties of clause -structure. 

27. A complex sentence may be changed into a sim- 
ple sentence by a process called abridgment. 

1. The relative clause in a complex sentence becomes, by 
abridgment, an adjective or participial clause of a simple sen- 
tence. 

Examples. — 1. A speaker who is earnest in delivery will 
command the attention of his hearers. 

This sentence becomes, by the abridgment of the relative 
clause, — : 

2. A speaker, earnest in delivery, will command, etc. 

3. The reformer ivho is decried io-day will be praised to- 
morrow. 

This sentence becomes, by the abridgment of the relative 
clause, — 

4. The reformer, decried to-day, will be praised to-morrow. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 233 

5. The boat which was floating down stream lodged in a drift. 

This sentence becomes, by the abridgment of the relative 
clause, — 

6. The boat, floating doivn stream, lodged in a drift. 

Here the complex sentences 1, 3, 5, are changed, by the 
abridgment of the clauses, into the simple sentences 2, 4, 6. 

II. The causal clause in a complex sentence becomes, by 
abridgment, a participial or absolute clause, or an infinitive 
phrase, in a simple sentence. 

Examples. — 1. Greene pressed on that he might reach the 
river in advance of the British 

This sentence becomes, by abridgment, — 

2. Greene pressed on to reach the river, etc. 

3. The birds darted into the thicket because they feared 
the storm. 

This sentence becomes, by abridgment, — 

4. The birds darted into the thicket, fearing the storm. 

5. Men love darkness because their deeds are evil. 
This sentence becomes, by abridgment, — 

6. Men love darkness, their deeds being evil. 

in. The adverbial clause in a complex sentence becomes 
by abridgment a participial clause or a common adjunct in a 
simple sentence. 

Examples. — 1. When the order was given, the inarch was 
resumed. 

This sentence becomes by abridgment, — 

2. The order being given, the march was resumed. 

3. When the dag closes, the hum of toil ceases. 
This sentence becomes, by abridgment, — 

4. With the close of dag, the hum of toil ceases. 

20 



234 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

In the preceding examples, sentences 1, 3, are complex sen- 
tences, and 2, 4, simple sentences. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write five Complex sentences, underscoring the depend- 
ent clauses. 

2. Write the same sentences so abridged as to become Simple 
sentences. 

ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

28. The order of analyzing a complex sentence is: 

1. A Complex sentence, and why; 

2. The Principal and the Subordinate clause or clauses ; 

3. The analysis of the Principal clause according to the 
model for analysis of simple sentences; 

4. The analysis of the Subordinate clause or clauses in the 
same manner. 

MODELS FOR ORAL ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

I. I would hear the voice which was my music. 

I would hear, etc., is a complex sentence, because it contains a 
principal and a subordinate proposition; "I would hear 
the voice" is the principal clause, and " which was my 
music' 1 the subordinate clause; in the principal clause the 
essential elements are "I" and "would hear; 77 the acci- 
dental elements are "the voice ; " the logical subject is "I," 
etc., etc. The essential elements in the subordinate clause 
are "which" and "was music;" the accidental element is 
"my;" the logical subject is "which," etc., etc. 

Remark. — After reaching the essential elements in the prin- 
cipal or the subordinate clause, the analysis continues as in 
simple sentences. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 235 

II. The night on which we left the camp was so dark 
that rapid marching was impossible. 

The night on which, etc., is a complex sentence, because it con- 
tains a principal and subordinate clauses; declarative, be- 
cause it expresses the thought as an assertion ; the principal 
clause is "The night was dark;" the subordinate clauses 
are "on which we left the camp" and "rapid marching 
was impossible;" in the principal clause the essential ele- 
ments are "night" and "was dark;" the accidental ele- 
ments are "the" and "so," etc., etc. In the first subor- 
dinate clause the essential elements are "we" and "left;" 
the accidental elements are "on which" and "the camp," 
etc., etc. In the second subordinate clause the essential 
elements are "marching" and "was impossible;" the ac- 
cidental elements are "that" and "rapid," etc., etc. 

Remark. — With these models, and such variations of the 
same as are naturally suggested, all complex sentences may 
be readily analyzed. 



MODELS FOR DIAGRAM ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

I. The bark that held the prince went down. 

WEST DOWN 




Explanation. — 1. In the principal clause the same general dispo- 
sition of the parts as in the simple sentence. 

2. The dependence of the subordinate clause or clauses indicated by 
the double vertical line. 

3. In the subordinate clause the same disposition of the parts as in 
the simple sentence. 

4. The logical subject and the logical predicate of the subordinate 
clause or clauses separated by the broken vertical bar. 



236 



ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 



II. He is worthy of honor who willeth the good 
of every man. 

JS WORTHY 



WHO rWILLETH- 

i 

i 



3 VVU . -i»^r 

L the 



man 
Uvery 



' — [~oF] honor 



In this example observe the arrangement of the relative 
clause with the subject where it logically belongs. 



III. High hopes, that burned like stars sublime, 
Go down in the heavens of Freedom. 



HOPES. 



THAT r BURNED 



i 1 ' 



like-{to) — stars 



sublime 



GO DOWN 



— Q^J "heavens 

Hh y^- freedom 



IV. Ye who deem that in all ages 
Every human heart is human, 
Bead this song of Hiawatha. — Longfelloiv. 



t~ ; — 

1 1TO[nrDEEiff 

i "{that]- HEART — ^ — IS HUMAN 
[human | £s^^ 

Uery ^1 W* 

Ull 



READ, ^soflg 

I n — ~s 

L this ^ — Hiawatha 



V. " Better be right than President,' 7 said Henry Clay. 
inNRYCLAY^SAID 

-(tbtktol-BERIGHT-rlS BETTER 



i 



j H^uTOTt isMo be president 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 237 



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238 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



VII. When my eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time 
the sun in the heavens, may I not see him shining on 
the broken and dishonored fragments of a once glorious 
Union. — Webster. 



_MAY 

Lnot 



Lshining 



' — [on] — fragments , — *— v 

— — ^ D ' 011 

Lglorious 

Unce 

U 

- broken - j and [ —dishonored 

-the 



-mj 



-jwhTnl-EYES — p-SOALL BE TURNED 

L, 



to behold -Sun ,-^^-\ 

khe •— Mn ! heavens 

r-A ""^ Mho 

*-} for [ — • — time 

h 

Ltl 



4he 



VIII. When the blossoms open and the bees go forth, then 
Robin, O bird of golden breast, will come again. 



ROBIN. 



Obird 



.WILL COM^ 

1- again 4b en 



ora 



*-fofj — breast 
'golden 



In this example observe the analysis of the compound sub- 
ordinate clause. The modifying element "forth," dependent 
on "go," may be regarded as a part of the compound gram- 
matical predicate, "go forth." 




SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 239 

Remark. — With slight variations, the foregoing diagrams may 
be used as models for the analysis of all complex sentences. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

Give the Oral and Diagram Analysis of the following Com- 
plex sentences : 

1. I'm saddest when I sing. 

2. On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay th' untrodden snow. 

3. Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime ? 

4. The nightly hunter lifting up his eyes 
Towards the crescent moon, with grateful heart 
Calls on the lovely w r anderer who bestows 

That timely light, to share his joyous sport. — Wordsworth. 

5. There is a spot of earth supremely blest, 
A dearer, sweeter spot than all the rest ; 
Where man, creation's tyrant, casts aside 

His sword and scepter, pageantry and pride. — Montgomery. 

6. Within that chest had she concealed herself, 
Fluttering with joy, the happiest of the happy; 
When a spring lock, that lay in ambush there, 
Fastened her down forever. — Rogers. 

7. Every sham science, of which there are so many, makes 
for itself a jargon of words to cover its nothingness. — Bentham. 

8. Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend 
was obliging enough to translate for me, for the first seventy 
thousand ages ate their meat raw. — Lamb. 

9. We could, we think, also show that the evils produced by 
the Jacobin administration did not terminate when it fell. 

10. We were now treading that illustrious island which was 
once the luminary of the Caledonian regions, whence roving 
barbarians derived the benefits of knowledge. — Johnson. 



240 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



V. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

3(h A compound sentence is one which consists of 
two or more simple or complex sentences united by a 
coordinative conjunction. 

Examples. — 1. The rains descended and the winds blew. 

2. He heard it, but he heeded not. 

3. Go and sin no more. 

Each of these examples is a compound sentence consisting 
of two simple sentences. 

4. The flowers gladden, the air breathes balm, and the sun- 
shine smiles. 

5. The evening came on, the shadows gathered, the birds 
flew to then' covert, and the red fox came out of his den. 

Each of these examples is a compound sentence consisting 
of more than two simple sentences. 

6. A blind man, who can not see the beauties of nature, de- 
serves our sympathy, and the dull man, who will not, deserves 
our pity. 

This example is a compound sentence consisting of two com- 
plex sentences. 

7. A merry fellow was selling toy-balloons to the children, 
and a little girl in ragged clothes was crying for her mother, 
who had abandoned her. 

This example is a compound sentence consisting of one sim- 
ple and one complex sentence. The list of examples might 
easily be extended by adding other varieties. 

31. Many compound sentences have the form of sim- 
ple sentences with compound subjects, compound predi- 
cates, or both. (See page 205 ; Remarks 1 ; 2, 3.) 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 241 

Examples. — 1. Hail and sleet are produced by currents of 
cold air. 

2. Froude is an essayist and historian. 

3. Explorers and adventurers went every-ivhere and settled 
nowhere. 

In example 1 the subject, in example 2 the predicate, and 
in example 3 both subject and predicate, are compound. 

Remark I. — Sentences of the sort just described have a mixed 
character. Grammatically, they may well be regarded as sim- 
ple sentences; but, logically considered, they are compound 
sentences, and should be so classified in analyzing. 

Remark 2. — In giving the analysis of mixed sentences the 
parts necessary to a logical expression may be supplied. 

Examples. — 1. Air and exercise are essential to health = 
Air is essential and exercise is essential. 

2. Time creates and destroys = Time creates and time de- 
stroys. 

3. There she stands, and will stand forever = There she 
stands, and there she will stand forever. 

Remark 3. — The distinction between compound and complex 
sentences is sometimes difficult to draw. This arises from the 
fact that a coordinate clause may be mistaken for a subordi- 
nate clause. Many conjunctions (see pages 191, 192) are both 
coordinative and subordinative, and the clauses which they 
connect may be confounded. 

Examples. — 1. The mail arrived while we remained at 
the station. 

2. Our friends set out for Detroit, while ive returned home. 

The first of these examples, containing a subordinate clause 
introduced by the subordinative conjunction "while," is a com- 
plex sentence; the second, containing a coordinate clause in- 
troduced by the coordinative conjunction "while," is a com- 
pound sentence. 
21 



242 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the Compound sentences in the Exercises on 
page 184. 

2. Write five Compound sentences. 



ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

32; The order of analyzing a compound sentence is: 

1. A Compound sentence, and why; 

2. The Clauses which compose it ; 

3. The Analysis of each clause according to the models given 
for analysis of Simple and Complex sentences. 

MODEL FOR ORAL ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Great was the joy ; but at the nuptial feast, 
When all sate down, the bride herself was wanting. 

Great was the joy, etc., is a compound sentence, because it con- 
sists of a simple and a complex sentence united in a single 
proposition ; declarative, because it contains an assertion ; 
the clauses are " Great was the joy" — a simple sentence — 
and "at the nuptial feast,' 7 etc. — a complex sentence; in 
the first member the essential elements are "joy" and 
"was' great;" the accidental element is "the," etc., etc. 
In the second member the principal clause is "the bride 
herself was wanting," and the subordinate clause is " when 
all sate down;" in the principal clause the essential ele- 
ments are "bride" and "was wanting," etc., etc.; in the 
subordinate clause the essential elements are "all" and 
"sate down," etc., etc. 

Remark. — With this model, and such variations of the same 
as are readily suggested, all compound sentences may be ana- 
lyzed. 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 243 



MODELS FOE DIAGRAM ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

I. The old man, quietly lighting his pipe, sat down by the road- 
side ; and the stranger, taking up his bundle, trudged on his 
journey. 

JAIL SAT DOWN 



Lit j ig}itiag: — pipe 

Lfluietly Lliis 




UTRASGER^ 
Lb Ll 



.taking up^_ 



_kadle 



-TRUDGED 



Lg— j 



journey 
L liis 



II. It is a place where poets crowned may feel the heart's 
decaying, 
It is a place where happy saints may weep amid their 
praying. — Browning. 

-IT _1S PLACE 



where 



Lcrowncd 



^decaying 

t heart's 
the 



T 



IS PLACE 



1 where [ —SAINTS 



-HAY WEEP (Ww 

H amid | praying 

Uheir 



III. In politics it is a sure law that every excess shall gener- 
ate its opposite ; nor does he deserve the name of a states- 
man, who strikes a great blow without fully calculating 
the effect of the rebound. — Macaulay. 



244 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

_1T _1S LAW 




a {KF-P° lltlcs ILfSatl-EXCESS pSHALL GENERATE — opposite 

Levery S 4ts 



I J)0ES DESERVE .name ^ 

— ^-STRIRES -blow 

(-great 
La 



-statesman 
La 



- | without | — calculating- effect /p*— \ 

Like 4 of h ^reboimd 
Ltlie 



IV. My lords, the East India Company have not arbitrary 
power to give him ; the king has no arbitrary power to 
give him; your lordships have not; nor the Commons; 
nor the whole legislature. — Pitt. 



Lthe 



r-EAST INDIA COMPACT ^HAYE 

HAS .power 



Q 



HAVE power 

lords j Loot LarbitraryLto give ^,him 

Liny I 



.KING- 

Lthe 





Lyour Luot 

[w[] 

-.COMMONS _ r n 

Ltl ^~ 



Up I to give him. 

CD 



Jlie 



LEGISLATURE. 

Lthe 



1 ] 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 245 

V. I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft 

In life's morning march, when my bosom was young ; 

I heard my own mountain-goats bleating aloft, 

And knew the sweet strain that the corn-reapers sung. 

— Campbell. 
HEW l 

HtoT fields 




t pleasant [.traversed- . 
tie Loft 



Lso QilH 



goats 



larcli 
morning 
Mife'i 



. 1 

-mountain |jj eating 

-° wa [aloft 

Liny 




BOSOI-rWAS YOUNG 




CORN-REAPERS 

Lthe 



In this example observe the peculiar position of the essential 
elements before the connective "that," m the subordinate clause 
of the second member of the sentence. The lines of grammat- 
ical government in the diagrams run from left to right; and 
"that," being an objective element, stands after the transitive 
verb "sung," by which it is syntactically governed. 



VI. Of all our intellectual pursuits, the study of the mathe- 
• matical sciences is the one whose utility as a mental ex- 
ercise has been most peremptorily denied by the greatest 
number of the most competent judges ; and the argu- 
ments on which this opinion is established, have hitherto 
been evaded rather than opposed. — Buckle. 



* It will be noted that in clauses before which the connective is omitted the 
subject is inserted, and where the subject is omitted the connective must be 
used. 



246 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




.y 



—J 1 



§s -5 






*d 









,d 

-*3 


§ 












CD 

>d 


4-3 

44 




OX) 
d 

o 

CO 


O 
m 

O 

4-> 


02 q5 

CD rt 

s -a 




02 


o 

c 


CD 
CD 


OQ 


02 


« s 




£2 


r-4 


d 


o 


CL 1 


^ s 


Q 


how the hea 
: or, if Sion 


92 

o 

>d 
d 


5 

M 

o 
O 


d 

CD 
> 

03 


4^ 

.2 


an mount, whi 
pted yet in pre 


LU 
CO 

o 


o3 


o 


a 




CL 
CL 


^ 02 

to o 


eh 


CD 


o 

4-> 


'd 


O 

r 


■- go 


o 

a 

CD 
CD 


CD 
o3 
Ph 

O 

CD 


-d 

•i-H 

c3 

CD 
C 

d 

M 


i 

o 


"a 8 

:o cd 

^1 


r— ' 


&o o 

■8'13 

<D o 


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4-3 ^ 


ffl 


^ 02 


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s .s 




d O <D oi 


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<1 H 


> 1 












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CD 


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CD 
02 


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1 'A 


■+-I 
33 ^ 

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<r-l r— 1 


d 

o 

r— 1 

"3 


d 

03 


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o3 

CD 


4-3 

■s 

CD 

CD 


d 

CD 
02 

o 

rd 
CD 




CD +z 


o3 

r— ■ 1 


CD 
-M 

o3 
CD 

CD 


92 

r— 1 

92 


CD 

Pi 
O 


CD 

CD ,d 

'^ 13 

02 rQ 

d cjo 






03 j/j 




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| 


® 2 

CD rQ 


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CD 

rj 
O 


3 

■CD 


4^ 


4-3 03 
O} 4^> 






CD 


CD 




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"~ l 02 




1 ca 


^8 CD~ 
CP CD 


^ 
+J 


i — i 

4-J 


^ 


CD 


'd ^-t 




Gs3 

B3 

ea 

E— ' 


■*£ *d 

Sh Si 


C 
4^ 

4-J 

03 


CD 

w 

6H 


to 
9 

"d 

c3 


a 


"8 2 

d rd 

. CD 




w 


<a t; 


CD 





02 


>- 


o -g 








O 


02 
92 

o 

rd 

4J 


CD 
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02 


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CD 

rj 


CD ^ 






«»-i ^d 


c 


c£ 


*■ 


o o 


S 


£ 


Ph 


X 


O H 



SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS: THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 247 




mmtmmtmwa 



-R 



248 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

Give Oral and Diagram Analysis of the following Compound 
sentences : 

1. All the world 's a stage, 

And all the men and women merely players. 

2. Art is long and Time is fleeting, —Shakespeare. 

And our hearts, though stout and brave, 
Still, like muffled drums, are beating 
Funeral marches to the grave. — Longfellow. 

3. I have swung for ages to and fro ; 

I have striven in vain to reach thy feet, 
O Garden of joy ! whose walls are low 
And odors are so sweet. — Raymond. 

4. Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn 

Among the river shallows borne aloft, 

Or sinking, as the light wind lives or dies ; 
And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn ; 
Hedge crickets sing ; and now, with treble soft, 
The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft ; 
And gathering swallows twitter in the skies. — Keats. 

5. Man changes and quits the arena ; his opinions pass away 
and change with him ; history alone remains upon the stage 
as the immortal citizen of all nations and ages. — Schiller. 

6. The blaze of truth and liberty may at first dazzle and be- 
wilder nations which have become half blind in the house of 
bondage ; but let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to 
bear it. — Maeaulay. 

7. Turning to the other half of the world of life, picture to 
yourselves the great Finner whale, hugest of beasts that live, 
or have lived, disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone, 
muscle, and blubber, with easy roll, among waves in which 
the stoutest ship that ever left dock -yard would founder hope- 
lessly; and contrast him with the invisible animalcules, mul- 
titudes of which could dance on the point of a needle. — Huxley. 



SYNTAX.— SYNTHESIS: KELATIONS OF WOEDS. 249 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SYNTHESIS. 
I. GENERAL RELATIONS OF WORDS. 

1. Synthesis is that branch of syntax which treats of the 
putting together of words so as to constitute sentences. 

2. The principles upon which sentences are con- 
structed, are determined grammatically by the relations 
of the words. 

3. The relations of words to each other in sentences 
may be classified under three heads: 

1. That relation in virtue of which one word influences an- 
other word in its grammatical properties — called Government. 

II. That relation in virtue of which one word coincides with 
another word in its grammatical properties — called Agreement, 
or Concord. 

III. That relation in virtue of which one word changes the 
sense of another word with which it is associated — called Mod- 
ification. 

Examples. — 1. I directed him to the post-office. 

2. The old man's house is falling into ruins. 

In example 1, the case of the pronoun "him" is determined 
by the verb "directed;" and in example 2, the case of the 
noun "man's" is determined by the noun "house." These are 
instances of grammatical government. 

3. Nature gives her weary children sleep. 

4. A true man is not forgotten when he dies. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In example 3, the verb " gives " agrees with its subject, u Nat- 
ure, 77 in number and person; and in example 4, the pronoun 
"he" agrees with its antecedent, "man/' in gender, number, 
and person. These are instances of grammatical agreement 

5, A red apple hung on the slender twig. 

6. The boys were quickly discovered in the haymow. 

In example 5, the adjective "red" influences the meaning 
of the noun "apple;" and in example 6, the adverb "quickly 77 
influences the meaning of the verb "discovered. 77 These are 
examples of modification. 

4. The principles in accordance with which words are 
joined together in constructing sentences are called The 
Rules of Syntax. 

II. RULES OF SYNTAX. 

5. The Rules of Syntax are divided into four classes : 
I. Rules of Synthesis proper; II. Rules of Collocation; 
III. Rules of Punctuation ; IV. Rules of Figurative 
Language. 

1. The Rules of Synthesis are formal statements of the prin- 
ciples which determine the government, agreement, and mod- 
ification, of words in sentences. 

2. The Rules of Collocation are formal statements of the prin- 
ciples which determine the place, or position, of words in sen- 
tences. 

3. The Rules of Punctuation are formal statements of the prin- 
ciples which determine the degrees of separation between words 
in sentences, and the marks by which those degrees are indi- 
cated. 

4. The Rules of Figurative Language are formal statements of 
the principles which govern certain deviations from the ordi- 
nary forms of speech. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: SUBJECTIVE EELATION. 251 

SECTION I. — RULES OF SYNTHESIS. 

I. The Subjective Relation. </f 

6. RULE I. — The subject of a sentence is in the nomi- 
native case. (See pages 85, 65, 205.) 

Examples. — 1. Our government is by the people. 
2. They would not permit us to explain. 

Here the noun "government" and the pronoun "they" are 
the subjects of the respective sentences, and are in the nomi- 
native case, according to Rule I. 

Remark. — Every sentence must have a subject either ex- 
pressed or understood. For the various kinds of subjects, see 

II, page 208. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — A noun or pronoun, in the grammatical 
predicate of a sentence, is in the nominative case. (See 1^, 
page Sm.)*''*- 

Examplpjs. — 1. Keats was a poet. 

2. Men who love their native land are patriots. 

Here the nouns "poets" and "patriots," being parts of the 
grammatical predicates of the respective sentences, are in the 
nominative case, according to Special Rule I. 

Remark. — The noun used in the grammatical predicate of a 
sentence is called the predicate-nominative, as distinguished 
from the s^6/ec^-nominative. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — Nouns used as titles of books, or as names 
of places or persons, are in the nominative case — generally the 
predicate-nominative. 

Examples. — 1. Mommsen's History of Borne = This work 
is Mommsen's History of Borne. 

2. Locust street = This is Locust street. 

3. Gilbert Taylor = Gilbert Taylor oums this book. 

Remark I. — In practical usage nouns in the nominative case 



252 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

are sometimes used without the verbs of which they are the 
subjects. 

Example. — To whom thus Adam = Adam replied. 

Remark 2. — In answering questions the noun in the nomi- 
native case is generally given without repetition of the verb. 

Example. — Who invented the phonograph ? Answer : Ed- 
ison = Edison invented it. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Point out and correct the Syntactical Errors in the following 
sentences : * 

1. The boys and me were reading. 

2. Them and their friends were drawing figures in the sand. 

3. There are no pinks more beautiful than them. 

4. She received better marks in Grammar than him. 

5. Whom do men say that I am ? 

6. Was it you who deceived the teacher ? Was it me ? 

7. You may refer the question to whomever is present. 

8. We have as good rights and privileges as them. 

9. Shall Henry have the place of honor? No, not him. 
10. Who is ready to answer the last question? Me. 

II. The Possessive Relation. 

7. RULE II. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the 
meaning of another noun denoting a different person or 
thing, is in the possessive case. (See pages 8fr, 66, 69.) 

Examples. — 1. The young ?nan J s trunk was broken open. 

2. The orator whose voice we well remember, is dead. 

3. The maiden gave her hand to Francesco. 

Here the noun "man's" and the pronouns u whose" and 



♦After correcting, analyze and parse each sentence. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: POSSESSIVE KELATION. 253 

"her" — limiting respectively the nouns "trunk," "voice," and 
"hand" — are in the possessive case, according to Rule II. 

Remark 1. — The noun denoting the thing possessed is fre- 
quently omitted. 

Examples. — 1. A stranger came to my father' s = my fa- 
ther's house. 

2. The dome of St Peter's = St. Peter's cathedral. 

Remark 2. — If the noun denoting the thing possessed be a 
participial noun, the limiting word is in the possessive case. 

Examples. — 1. Industry was the cause of his (not him) 
succeeding. 

2. We were not surprised at their (not them) meeting with 
disaster. 

Remark 3. — In the case of joint possession, only the last of 
the nouns in the possessive relation has the possessive sign ('s). 

Example. — Mary and Ellen's flower-bed — not Mary's and 
Ellen's. 

Remark 4. — In the case of separate possession, each, of the 
nouns in the possessive relation has the possessive sign. 

Example. — Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries — not 
Webster and Worcester's. 

Remark 5. — In the case of appositive possession, only the 
appositive noun takes the possessive sign. 

Example.— We went to Tiffany, the jeweler's store. 

Remark 6. — In the case of a complex 2^ossessive } the last 
word has the possessive sign. 

Examples.— 1. My son-in-Zaw's farm — not son's-in-law. 
2. Louis the Sixth's policy — not Louis's the Sixth. 

Remark 7. — The possessive expression is generally, but not 
always, resolvable into an objective case preceded by of. 



254 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Examples. — 1. A philosopher's plans = the plans of a phi- 
losopher. 

2. An angel's idea — not equivalent to an idea of an angel. 

Remark 8. — A succession of possessives, though syntactic- 
ally correct, is more harmonious when resolved into objective 
equivalents. 

Example. — My father's brother's son's wife is my cousin 
by affinity == the wife of the son of my father's brother is my 
cousin by affinity. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Point out and correct the Syntactical Errors in the following 
sentences : * 

1. The childrens hats are lying on the table. 

2. Mans opinions are as often false as true. 

3. We examined the flie's wings under- the microscope. 

4. Those ladie's fans were purchased in New York. 

5. The men found some niices' nests while plowing. 

6. Geeses' feathers are worth more than ducks feathers. 

7. My father' s-in-law estate was sold to my brothers-in-laws 
sons. 

8. I found some one's else umbrella in the hall. 

9. Six Knights'- templar uniforms were shown to us. 

10. Congress ordered ten aids-de-camps commissions to be 
printed. 

III. The Objective Relation. 

8. RULE III. — A noun or pronoun, used as the object 
of a transitive verb, is in the objective case. 

Examples. — 1. Washington crossed the Delaware. 
2. The people welcomed us to their homes. 



♦After correcting, analyze and parse each sentence. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: OBJECTIVE KELATION. 255 

In the preceding examples the noun u Delaware' 7 and the 
pronoun "us" are the objects respectively of the verbs " crossed " 
and " welcomed," according to Rule III. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — Nouns denoting" measurement of time, 
space, weight, or number, are in the objective case. 

Examples. — 1. We waited for the train ten hours. 

2. The field is forty rods wide. 

3. The Guinea-pig weighs three pounds. 

4. I answered his question forty times. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — After intransitive verbs, nouns of like 
signification are in the objective case. 

Examples. — 1. These people lived a life of virtue. 

2. In my slumbers I dreamed a dream. 

3. They insisted that we should run a race. 

Here the nouns "life," "dream," and u race," have a like 
signification w T ith the verbs which they follow. 

SPECIAL RULE in. — A noun or pronoun in the objective case 
is frequently used after transitive verbs in the passive voice. 

Examples. — 1. I was offered a good po'sition. 
2. The prisoner was allowed some liberty. 

SPECIAL RULE IT. — A noun following 1 the adjective worth, and 
denoting* price, is in the objective case. 

Example. — The book is worth three dollars. 

SPECIAL RULE T. — A noun or pronoun following' the adjec- 
tives like, near, next, nigh, is in the objective case. 

Examples. — 1. There are not many like him. 
2. We stood near the mouth of the cave. 

SPECIAL RULE VI. — Many transitive verbs admit of two ob- 
jectives after them. 

Examples. — 1. He asked us many questions. 
2. We envied him his good fortune. 



256 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



Verbs admitting of Two Objectives. 



Allow, 


Draw, 


Make, 


Provide, 


Ask, 


Envy, 


Offer, 


Refuse, 


Bring, 


Fine, 


Order, 


Sell, 


Buy, 


Get, 


Pay, 


Send, 


Cost, 


Give, 


Play, 


Sing, 


Deny, 


Leave, 


Present, 


Teach, 


Do, 


Lend, 


Promise, 


Tell. 



SPECIAL RULE VII. — A few transitive verbs have a second ob- 
jective of like signification with the verb. 

Examples. — 1. The fellow struck him a hard blow. 
2. Folly leads the fool a long journey. 

Here the second objectives "blow" and "journey" are of 
like signification with the preceding verbs. 

9. RULE IV. — A noun or pronoun following a preposi- 
tion as its object, is in the objective case. 

Examples. — 1. The road led through the woods to the river. 
2. Under the shadow of the yew the dead lie buried. 

Here the nouns "woods," "river," "shadow," and "yew," 
following the several prepositions, are in the objective case. 

exercises in false syntax. 



Correct the Syntactical Errors in the following sentences : * :i 

1. They asked him and I to arise. 

2. Who do you think they will choose for a leader? 

3. It is uncertain who we may trust. 

4. I saw that him and me on every side were surrounded. 

5. There is a difference of opinion between you and I. 

6. Whom do you intend to call ? I ? 



* After correcting, analyze and parse each sentence. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: APPOSITIVE RELATION. 257 

IV. The Independent Relation. 

10. RULE V. — A noun or pronoun addressed is in the 
independent case. (See pages 68, 69.) 

Examples. — 1. Break on thy cold gray stones, O Sea! 

2. But thou, O Hope, with eyes so fair ! 

3. O Thou , who makest and who breakest states ! 

Here the nouns "Sea" and "Hope" and the pronoun 
"Thou," being used in direct address, are in the independent 
case, according to Rule V 

SPECIAL RULE I. — Nouns used pleonastically (see page 68) fall 
under Rule VI, and are in the independent case. 

Example. — The fathers! where are they? 

SPECIAL RULE II. — Nouns and pronouns used in absolute 
participial clauses are in the independent case. 

Examples. — 1. Napoleon being overthrown, the Empire fell. 

2. The mail arriving, the news was soon blown abroad. 

3. He delaying, we were all delayed. 

4. And him destroyed, or won to what may work his loss. 

In these examples the italicized words are in the independ- 
ent case. Observe that "him," as well as "he," may be used 
independently. 

V. The Appositive Relation. 

11. RULE VI. — A noun or pronoun, used to limit the 
meaning of another noun or pronoun denoting the same 
person or thing, is in the same case with the other noun 
or pronoun, by apposition. 

Examples. — 1. Bryant, the great poet, is dead. 

2. Alexander, king of Macedon, conquered the Persians. 

3. We referred the matter to Williams, the lawyer. 

4. Such was Jefferson's opinion, the best thinker of his times. 

Here the italicized words are in apposition with u Bryant," 

4 1 Alexander,' ' " Williams," and " Jefferson's, " respectively. 

22 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — It will be noted that when a noun is in apposition 
with another noun in the possessive case, the appositive omits 
the possessive sign. (See above in example 4.) 

Note. — The first six Rules of Syntax apply equally to nouns and 
pronouns; but the pronoun, having additional relations in sentential 
structure, requires additional rules. 

VI. ' Pronominal Properties. 

12. RULE VII. — A pronoun agrees with its antecedent 
in gender, number, and person. 

Examples. — 1. Lincoln is dead, but he still lives in history. 

2. Leaves have their time to fall. 

3. The man whose heart is selfish can not be great. 

4. Our hopes, our fears are all with thee. 

5. They who reach for every thing grasp nothing. 

In examples 1, 2, and 3, the pronouns "he," "their," and 
"whose," have the same gender, number, and person as their 
respective antecedents, "Lincoln," "leaves," and "man." In 
example 4, the pronoun "our" has the same gender, number, 
and person as the names of the persons speaking, and the pro- 
noun "thee" as th@ name of the person spoken to. In exam- 
ple 5, "they" has the same gender, number, and person as 
the names of the persons spoken of, and "who" the same as 
"they" — all according to Rule VII. 

Remark. — The fourth property of the pronoun — that is, the 
case— is determined, not by its antecedent, but by the construc- 
tion of the clause in which it stands. 

Examples. — 1. The lad whom we passed on the road was 
barefoot. 

2. The orator ivhose speech so moved the crowd was blind. . 

Here the pronouns "whose" and "whom," though deriving 
their gender, number, and person from their antecedents, take 
their case (the one possessive, the other objective) from the 
nature of the clauses in which they stand. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: PRONOMINAL PEOPEKTIES. 259 

13. Since three of the properties of pronouns are de- 
rived from their antecedents, the principles which deter- 
mine the properties of the antecedent should be observed. 
These principles are embraced in the following rules: 

SPECIAL RULE I. — If the antecedent be a collective noun de- 
noting 1 unity — that is, if the reference be to the class rather 
than to the individuals — the pronoun referring* to such ante- 
cedent is in the singular number. 

Examples. — 1. The society has its motto in Latin. 
2. The convention was astonished at its own folly. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — If the antecedent be a collective noun de- 
noting plurality — that is, if the reference be to the individuals 
rather than the class — the pronoun referring to such anteced- 
ent is in the plural number. 

Examples. — 1. The Senate were divided in their opinions. 
2. The assembly may do their own voting. 

SPECIAL RULE III. — Two or more singular antecedents con- 
nected by the copulative conjunction and, require the pronoun 
referring to them to be in the plural number. 

Example. — Caesar and Napoleon conquered their enemies. 

Remark I. — If the antecedents be joined by any connective 
other than and, the pronoun is in the singular number; as, 
Caesar, as well as Napoleon, conquered Ms enemies; but, — 

Remark 2. — If no copulative be used between the anteced- 
ents, and the sense requires and to be supplied, the pronoun 
must be in the plural number; as, Alexander, Caesar, Napo- 
leon, conquered their enemies. 

SPECIAL KULE IV. — Two or more singular antecedents con- 
nected by any disjunctive conjunction (see page 191) require the 
pronoun referring to them to be in the singular number. 

Examples. — 1. Some tale or song will lend its charm. 
2. Judgment or folly gave its hue to all. 



260 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

SPECIAL RULE V.— If an antecedent be modified by the adjec- 
tive many and the article a, the pronoun referring* to it is gen- 
erally in the singular number. 

Example. — Many a brave reformer has ended his life in a 
dungeon. 

SPECIAL RULE YI. — Sometimes an antecedent modified by 
many a, takes a pronoun in the plural number. 

Example. — In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
Behind him soon they set in night. 

SPECIAL RULE VII. — Titles of books and essays, since they 
denote a single thing", require the pronoun in agreement to 
be in the singular number. 

Examples. — 1. Young's Night Thoughts is noted for its 
somber imagery. 

2. Hal lam's Middle Ages is praised for its erudition. 

SPECIAL RULE VIII.— If the antecedent be qualified by a dis- 
tributive adjective, the pronoun in agreement is in the sin- 
gular number. 

Examples. — 1. Every one of the poets has his peculiar dic- 
tion and imagery. 

2. Each man, in such emergency, must choose for himself. 

SPECIAL RULE IX. — Since in the English language there is no 
personal pronoun of undetermined gender in the singular 
number, third person, the masculine gender is taken by pref- 
erence to express this relation. 

Example. — Every man and woman in this assembly should 
sign his name. 

SPECIAL RULE X. — A noun or pronoun of any gender, num- 
ber, or person, or a phrase, clause, sentence, or indefinite 
idea, may be represented by the pronoun it. 

Examples. — 1. It is these dreams that trouble me. 

2. It \i you who have wasted opportunity. 

3. You have chosen badly, and shall grieve for it. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: PRONOMINAL PROPERTIES. 261 

4. It is all BonH do this, and BonH do that. 

5. Come and trip it as you go. 

SPECIAL KULE XI.— When the antecedents are of different per- 
sons the pronoun takes the first person by preference over the 
second, and the second over the third. 

Examples. — 1. You, he, and J have our rights as well as 
they. 

2. You and he may take your books with you. 

SPECIAL RULE XII. — After a collective antecedent, an ante- 
cedent denoting" both persons and things, an antecedent mod- 
ified by a superlative or the adjective same, or an antecedent 
consisting* of the interrogative who, — the relative pronoun re- 
ferring thereto is that, not who. 

Examples. — 1. An army that went to battle. 

2. Men and measures that should be discussed. 

3. The ivisest prince that ever lived. 

4. The same politician that spoke last year. 

5. Who that dallies will win the race ? 

SPECIAL RULE XIII. — After an antecedent denoting an irra- 
tional being, an infant, or an inanimate thing, the relative 
which is used. 

Examples. — 1. The child which was left, began to cry. 
2. The birds which sang in spring have flown. 

SPECIAL RULE XIY. — After antecedents denoting rational be- 
ings the relatives w^ho (with its derived cases) and that are 
used. 

Examples. — 1. The man ivho sows, shall reap. 

2. The lady tvho entered the car took the first seat. 

3. The poet that went abroad has returned. 

SPECIAL RULE XT. — After antecedents denoting things per- 
sonified, the relative who is used. 

Examples. — 1. The hare tvho had been asleep now awoke. 
2. The beaver who had come up, laughed heartily. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Point out and correct the Syntactical Errors in the follow- 
ing sentences : * 

1. The nature of men is such that he must be governed. 

2. The society is adjourned to meet in their own hall. 

3. Washington, as well as Franklin, expressed their views 
in the convention. 

4. Every officer and private as they passed by gave their 
usual salute. 

5. The book called the Unfortunates found many to admire 
their style. 

6. The brave leaders which conducted the war came home 
without honor. 

7. I and you went to your homes at Christmas. 

8. He and you should strive for a better grade in our classes. 

9. If any one wishes to subscribe, let them give their names 
to the secretary. 

VII. Adjectival Relation. 

14. RULE VIII. — An adjective describes op limits the 
meaning of some noun or pronoun to which it belongs. 

(See pages 88, 96.) 

Examples. — 1. True men never mock at sincere efforts. 

2. Sly inuendoes do more harm than open censure. 

3. He was poor but courageous. 

In examples 1 and 2, the adjectives "true," " sincere," "sly," 
and "open, 7 ' modify the meanings of the nouns to which they 
respectively belong. In 3, the adjectives "poor" and "coura- 
geous" modify the meaning of the pronoun "he," or of the 
noun for which it stands, according to Rule VIII. 

Remark. — In their syntactical construction .all adjectives 
(see pages 97, 98) fall under the general rule given above. 



•After correcting, analyze and parse each sentence. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: ADJECTIVAL EELATION. 263 

15. In the structure of a sentence the adjective holds 
one of three relations: 

1. It is joined directly with the noun or pronoun which it 
modifies, and in such case is called the Attributive Adjective. 

II. It is asserted, hy a verb of imperfect predication, of the 
noun or pronoun to which it belongs, and in such case is called 
the Predicative Adjective. 

III. It is joined with a noun or pronoun after the manner of 
a noun in apposition (see page 257), and in such case is called 
the Appositive Adjective. 

Examples of the Attributive Adjective. — 1. The red 
rose fell from the withered stem. 

2. The old man raked up the glowing embers. 

In these examples the qualities expressed by the various 
adjectives are simply attributed to the nouns to which they 
refer; that is, the qualities are assumed as true of these 
nouns. Such adjectives are examples of the class called at- 
tributive. , 

Examples of the Predicative Adjective. — 1. His face 
was pale; his voice was tremulous. 

2. The sky is calm; all nature seems asleep. 

In these examples the qualities expressed by the various 
adjectives are not assumed as true, but are asserted of the 
nouns to which they belong. Such adjectives are examples 
of the class called predicative. 

Examples of the Appositive Adjective. — 1. Brave, re- 
fined, and chivalrous, Sidney was the ideal of his age. 

2. With this disposition, clever, ivitty, and reckless, Moore 
began his career. 

In these examples the italicized adjectives are set, in the 
manner of a noun in apposition, against the nouns which 
they modify, and are called appositive adjectives. 

Remark. — The adjective, whether attributive, predicative, 



264 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

or appositive, retains its modifying or limiting power over 
the noun or pronoun to which it belongs. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — In the case of the demonstratives this and 
that, with their plurals, the adjective must agree in number 
with the noun which it limits. 

Examples. — This book ; These flowers ; That piano ; Those 
pictures. 

Remark. — No adjectives other than this and that have plu- 
rals. (See page 102.) Such expressions as iom:-feete& beasts, 
ten-feet poles, etc., are wholly erroneous. The adjectives should 
be, four-/ooted, ten-foot, etc. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — The distributives each, every, either, and 
neither (see page 104), are joined with nouns in the singular 
number only. 

Examples. — Each tree; Every lily; Either road; Neither 
house. 

SPECIAL RULE III. — The indefinites all, any, no, other, and 
some, % are joined with nouns in either number. 

Examples. — All animals, all the wheat; Any blossom, any 
blossoms; No leaf, no leaves; etc. 

SPECIAL RULE IT. — After infinitives and participles, adjec- 
tives are sometimes used in the abstract — that is, without 
reference to any particular noun. 

Examples. — 1. To be true is to be honored, 
2. Being frugal is one way of being successful. 

Here the italicized adjectives express certain qualities in an 
abstract sense. 

SPECIAL RULE V c — Adjectives are frequently used as nouns, 
the nouns to which they refer being- omitted. 

Examples. — 1. The great have palaces of marble. 
2. The poor ye have always with you. 



SYNTAX.— SYNTHESIS: ADJECTIVAL KELATION. 265 

SPECIAL RULE VI.— , W r hen a single object is modified "by two 
or more adjectives and the article (an or the), the article is 
not repeated. 

Examples. — 1. A red and white rose (meaning one rose). 
2. The long, odd, useless problem (meaning one problem). 

SPECIAL RULE VII. — When two or more objects are modified 
by adjectives preceded by the article, the article is repeated 
for each object. 

Examples. — 1. A red and a white rose (meaning two roses). 
2. The long, the odd, and the useless problem (meaning three 
problems). 

SPECIAL RULE VIII. — When two or more nouns designate a 
single person or thing, the article is used with the first noun 
only; otherwise it is repeated for each person or thing. 

Ex ampl.es. — 1. A lawyer, doctor and mechanic (meaning 
one man). 

2. A plow, hoe, rake, and harrow (meaning a compound 
implement). 

3. A lawyer, a doctor, and a mechanic (meaning three 
persons). 

4. A plow, a hoe, a rake, and a harrow (meaning four 
implements). 

SPECIAL RULE IX. — When two or more appositives are joined 
to a noun and preceded by the article, the article is used with 
the first appositive only. 

Example. — They chose Franklin, the philosopher, states- 
man, and wit. 

SPECIAL RULE X. — The comparative degree of adjectives is 
used when only two objects are compared ; the superlative 
degree, when more than two are compared. 

Examples. — 1. The pine is taller than the cedar (two ob- 
jects only). 

2. Gold is more valuable than silver (two objects only). 



266 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

3. This is the fairest day of the week (niore than two objects). 

Remark I. — In comparisons, care must be taken that the 
thought be logically expressed. 

Examples. — 1. This story is the best of all others. Illog- 
ical ; the expression should be, best of all. 

2. This tree is higher than all others. Illogical ; the expres- 
sion should be, highest of all, or higher than any other. 

3. This lesson is more difficult than any in the book. Illog- 
ical ; the expression should be, more difficult than any other. 

Remark 2. — Participial adjectives are construed syntactically 
just as common adjectives. 

Remark 3. — Compound adjectives are parsed as simple ad- 
jectives qualifying the nouns with which they are joined. 

Examples. — A red-hot iron; A two-foot stick; A' tender- 
eyed daisy, etc. 

EXEKCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Point out and correct the Syntactical Errors in the following 
sentences : 

1. We measured the wall with a six-feet measure. 

2. Every blossom and every flower perfume the air. 

3. A black and red bird were sitting together. 

4. The new and old house were both painted white. 

5. A great and a good man has departed. 

i 6. To-day we met Longfellow, the poet and the sage. 

7. He is the tallest of all his brothers. 

8. That story was the funniest of all the others. 

VIII. The Predicative Relation. 

16. RULE IX. — The verb-predicate of a sentence agrees 
with its subject-nominative in number and person. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: PREDICATIVE RELATION. 267 

Examples. — 1. The postman brings the mail daily. 

2. The rivers floiv to the sea. 

3. I hear their voices calling. 

Here the verbs "brings," "flow," and "hear," agree in num- 
ber and person with their respective subjects, " postman, " "riv- 
ers," and "I," according to Rule IX. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — If the subject be a collective noun (see page 
51) denoting" singularity, the verb is in the singular number. 

Examples. — 1. The crowd was dispersed by an officer. 
2. A committee ivas appointed to consider the question. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — If the subject be a collective noun denot- 
ing- plurality, the verb is in the plural number. 

Examples. — 1. The jury have been unable to agree. 
2. The company were laughing and talking. 

SPECIAL RULE III.— If the subject consist of two or more 
nouns in the singular united by the conjunction and, the 
verb is in the plural number. 

Examples. — 1. Laughter and song ivere heard within. 
2. Brother and sister were studying from the same book. 

SPECIAL RULE IT. — If the subject consist of two or more 
nouns in the sing'ular united by a disjunctive conjunction, 
the verb is in the sing-ular number. 

Examples. — 1. An ash or maple wets planted here. 

2. Neither courage nor patriotism was shown in his conduct. 

Remark. — In a few cases, when the second of two nouns in 
the subject of a sentence expresses an idea which is implied in 
the noun preceding and, the verb remains in the singular. 

Examples. — 1. Pride and self-conceit is ruinous. 

2. Their safety and welfare has been considered. 

3. The nature and purpose of the proceeding was this. 

In such cases the syntax is doubtful, and the verbs may be 
correctly written in the plural. 



268 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

SPECIAL RULE V. — If the subject-nominative and predicate- 
nominative be of different numbers, the verb agrees with 

THE FORMER. 

Example. — This gold is to me goods, houses, and lands. 

SPECIAL RULE VI. — If two or more nouns in the singular num- 
ber, joined by the conjunction and, are preceded by the dis- 
tributives each, every, etc., the verb is in the singular. 

Examples. — 1. Each sex and every age was oppressed. 
2. The judicial and every other power is accountable. 

SPECIAL RULE VII. — If two nouns in the subject of a sentence, 
united by a disjunctive conjunction, are of different numbers, 
the verb agrees with the nearest. 

Example. — A base motive or baser hopes incite him. 

SPECIAL RULE VIII.— If the subject of a sentence be a word 
or expression which is plural only in form, the verb is in the 
. singnlar. 

Examples. — 1. They is a pronoun, and are is a verb. 
2. Tennyson's Two Voices is a beautiful poem. 

SPECIAL RULE IX. — If two subject-nominatives of a sentence 
be of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearest. 

Examplp:s. — 1. Neither he nor lam going. 
2. Either you or she is mistaken. 

17. RULE X.— The infinitive mode depends syntactically 
upon some word with which it is joined in construction. 

Examples. — 1. We made a plan to cross the river. 

2. He urged us to go away -at once. 

3. They all decided to stay. 

4. The doctor was anxious to return. 

5. Striving to help others is benefiting ourselves. 

6. Where to go we knew not. 

In these examples the various infinitives depend respect- 
ively upon the noun "plan," the pronoun "us," the verb "de- 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: PAETICIPIAL KELATION. 269 

cided," the adjective "anxious," the participle "striving," and 
the adverb "where," according to Rule X. 

Remark I. — An infinitive has the same power of government 
as any other mode of the verb. 

Example. — The father exhorted his son to speak the truth. 
Here the noun "truth," in the objective case, is governed 
by the infinitive "to speak." 

Remark 2. — The sign to of the infinitive is often omitted. 

Examples. — 1. The old man bade him follow = to follow. 
2. They made the culprit confess = to confess. 

Remark 3. — An infinitive, having no subject-nominative, 
has neither number nor person. 

18. RULE XL — A participle has the syntactical construc- 
tion of a verb, a noun, or an adjective. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — The participle, "when used as a verb, is 
parsed as a verb. 

Example. —We saw them setting a net for quail. 

Here "setting" has the governing power of a verb — "net" 
being its object, according to Special Rule I. 

Remark. — The participle, having no subject-nominative, has 
neither number nor person. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — The participle, when used as a noun, is 
parsed as a noun. 

Example. — The taking of usury is unlawful. 

Here "taking" is parsed as a noun. 

SPECIAL RULE III. — The participle, when used as an adjec- 
tive, is parsed as an adjective. 

Example. — The chattering wren is busy at her work. 
Here "chattering" is parsed as an adjective. 



270 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Point out and correct the Syntactical Errors in the following 
sentences : • 

1. These men, caring not for honor, was always wrong. 

2. William and Mary was called to the throne. 

3. Neither Tom with gun nor Hal with dogs were there. 

4. The committee has failed to agree. 

5. The class were dismissed at ten o 7 clock. 

6. The House of Representatives have passed the bill. 

7. There was, besides this, several other important reasons. 

8. No tree, no shrub, no creeping vine grow in this desert. 

9. Either you or I are deceived by the story. 
10. This kind of pleasures effeminate the mind. 

IX. The Adverbial Kelation. 

19. RULE XII. — An adverb modifies the verb, adjective, 
or adverb with which it is joined in construction. 

Examples. — 1. The Americans eagerly pressed forward. 

2. Heavy clouds, ominously black, gathered in the west. 

3. You know too well the story of our thralldom. 

Here the adverbs " eagerly, 77 " ominously, 77 and "too, 77 mod- 
ify respectively the verb " pressed, 77 the adjective " black, 77 and 
the adverb "well," according to Rule XII. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — An adverb may modify an adjunct, a phrase, 
or a sentence. 

Examples. — 1. We were walking close by the river bank. 

2. Quietly stealing from his den, the fox ran off. 

3. Verily , I say unto you. 

Here the adverbs "close, 77 "quietly, 77 and "verily, 77 modify 
respectively an adjunct, a phrase, and a sentence. 



* After correcting, analyze and parse each sentence. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: ADVEKBIAL KELATION. 271 

SPECIAL RULE II. — The modifying influence of an expletive 
(see page 178) is directed to no particular part of the sentence. 

Examples. — 1. There was a man called John. 

2. Well, you have heard the question. 

3. Aye, in the catalogue ye pass for men. 

SPECIAL RULE III. — A responsive adverb (see page 174) is syn- 
tactically equivalent to a sentence. 

Example. — Is he here? No = He is not here. 

SPECIAL RULE IV. — An adverbial adjunct, being 1 syntactically 
inseparable into parts, is to be parsed as a single word.* 

Example. — The time for parting is at hand. 

SPECIAL RULE V. — When the quality of an object, rather than 
the manner of an action, is to be expressed after a verb of imper- 
fect predication, an adjective, and not an adverb, must be used. 

Examples. — 1. The moon shines bright — not brightly. 
2. Your letter came safe to hand — not safely. 

Remark I. — Two negatives render the sentence in which 
they occur affirmative. 

Examples. — 1. Nor did he not return = He did return. 
2. I did not know unrest = I knew rest. 

Remark 2. — Emphatic repetitions of the same negative ad- 
verb do not render a sentence affirmative. 

Example.— He will never return, — never, never. 

Remark 3. — Double negatives, other than those indicated in 
Remarks 1 and 2, are ungrammatical. 

Example. — He didn't recognize none of the company. 

Remark 4. — The word modified by an adverb is frequently 
omitted. 

Example. — Away, thou puny tempter = Go away, etc. 



*In Etymology, the adjunct is to be parsed word by word. (See page 183.) 



272 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Remark 5. — In correlative adverbial expressions the article 
the is, according to an English idiom, placed before contrasted 
adverbs or adjectives in the comparative and superlative de- 
grees. 

Examples. — 1. The higher we climb, the fairer the view. 
2. Who acts the noblest, lives the best. 

Remark 6. — Care must be taken not to use adjectives in the 
place of adverbs. 

Examples. — 1. He did the work easily — not easy. 
2. Harry declaimed splendidly — not splendid. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Correct the Syntactical Errors in the following sentences : * 

1. The flowers look beautifully. 

2. All who were present appeared sadly. 

3. The pinks smell sweetly as the breath of morn. 

4. From books he never learned nothing. 

5. A boy could not do that work, nor nobody else. 

6. Water does not run up hill, nor never did. 

7. He accomplished the task tolerable well. 

8. Our friends came quicker than we exiDected. 

X. The Prepositional Relation. 

20. RULE XIII. — A preposition expresses the relation 
of a noun or pronoun to some other word. 

Examples. — 1. Speak briefly with men of business. 

2. A place for every thing, and every thing in its place. 

Here the preposition " with " expresses the relation of "men " 
to "speak;" the preposition "of," the relation of " business " to 
"men," etc. 



* After correcting - , analyze and parse each sentence. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: PREPOSITIONAL RELATION. 273 



Remark. — Care must be taken that the preposition used shall 
properly express the given relation. The following table shows 
what prepositions are appropriate after certain words : 



Accompanied by (of living 

things), 
Accompanied with (of in- 
animate things), 
Accuse of, 
Acquaint with, 
Agree ivith (a person), 
Agree to (a proposition), 
Agree upon (something at 

issue), 
Arrive at (a place), 
Arrive in (a city), 
Attended by (living things), 
Attended with (inanimate 

things), 
Averse to, 
Capacity for, 
Charge on (a person), 
Charge with (a crime), 
Compare with (of qualities), 
Compare to (in illustration), 
Comply ivith, 



Copy after (a person), 

Copy from (a thing), 

Correspond with, 

Die of (a disease), 

Die by (violence), 

Different from, 

Disappointed of (what we fail 

to obtain), 
Disappointed in (what does not 

meet expectation), 
Divide between (two persons), 
Divide among (more than two), 
Entrance into (a place), 
Entrance upon (a work), 
Followed by, 
Prefer to, 
Prevail over, 
Profit by, 

Reconcile to (a thing), 
Reconcile with (a person), 
Remonstrate ivith (a person), 
Remonstrate against (a thing). 



EXEIICISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 



Correct the Syntactical Errors in the following sentences : 

1. He divided his goods between his three sons. 

2. Let us profit from the mistakes of others. 

3. The French had different manners to what we expected. 

4. I can not comply to your request. 

5. Socrates was accused for teaching false doctrines. 

6. Henry Clay has been compared to Demosthenes. 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

XL The Conj uncti ve Relation. 

21. RULE XIV. — A coordinative conjunction connects 
the coordinate parts of a sentence. 

Examples. — 1. The ladies and gentlemen were seated. 
2. The prelude was given and then the song was sung. 

In these examples coordinate parts are connected by coordi- 
native conjunctions, according to Rule XIV. 

Remark I. — By "cooordinate parts" is meant such words, 
phrases, or clauses, as stand in like relation in the sentence. 

Remark 2. — Dissimilar parts, or unlike constructions, should 
not be connected by coordinative conjunctions. 

1. No man has, or ever will be, perfectly happy. In- 
correct. 

2. No man has been, or ever will be, perfectly happy. 
Correct 



II. 



1. He might have, and perhaps did, regain his losses. 

Incorrect. 

2. He might have regained, and perhaps did regain, 

his losses. Correct. 



Remark 3. — Conjunctions used as mere introductory woids 
have not the connective office, and are simple Expletives. 

Examples. — 1. And Moses said unto Pharaoh. 
2. So you ask for a story, my children. 

22. RULE XV. — A subordinative conjunction connects 
a subordinate with a superior element of a sentence. 

Examples. — 1. The soul that slumbers is dead. 
2. What will weak men do if strong men tremble f 

Remark. — The conjunction used must be appropriate. 

( 1. He said as he believed the story. Incorrect. 
1 2. He said that he believed the story. Correct. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: THE INTERJECTION. 275 



EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Correct the Syntactical Errors in the following sentences: 

1. He neither could nor wished to know his lesson. 

2. The angry boy would and did remain in his seat. 

3. Rest has, is, and shall ever be necessary. 

4. The fox was neither caught or scared. 

XII. The Interjection. 

23. RULE XVI. — An interjection has no syntactical re- 
lation with the sentence in which it occurs. 

Examples. — 1. O Time, the beautifler of the dead! 
2. Hark! 'tis the cry of distant sentinels. 

Here the interjections have no syntactical relation with the 
other parts of the sentence. 

exercises. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences, applying the 
Rules of Synthesis: 

1. I came, and saw, and conquered. 

2. Princes and lords may flourish or may fade ; 

A breath unmakes them, as a breath hath made. 

3. Deep in the wave is a coral grove, 

Where the purple mullet and gold-fish rove. 

4. Now to their mates the wild swans row, 

By day they swam apart, 
And to the thicket wanders slow 

The hind beside the hart. 
The wood -lark at his partner's side 

Twitters his closing song, — 
All meet whom day and care divide, 

But Leonard tarries long. — Scott 



276 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

SECTIOX II. — RULES OF COLLOCATION 

24. Collocation is that branch of synthesis which treats 
of the position of words in sentences. 

25. The position of words in sentences is determined 
by certain principles called The Rules of Collocation. 

I. The Nominative Case. 

26. RULE I. — A noun op pronoun in the nominative case 
precedes the verb of which it is the subject. 

Examples. — 1. Rivers run to the sea. 

2. The Koran is the Bible of the Mohammedans. 

Here the nouns " rivers' 7 and "Koran" precede the verbs 
of which they are the subjects. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — In imperative, interrogative and exclama- 
tory sentences, the subject-nominative follows the verb. 

Examples. — 1. Render unto Csesar the things that are 
Caesar's. 

2. What has he in his basket? 

3. How break the billows 'gainst the rocky shore ! 

In example 1, the subject (thou understood) follows the 
verb; in example 2, "he" follows "has;" and in example 3, 
"billows" follows "break." 

Remark. — If the verb in an interrogative sentence be in a 
compound tense, the subject-nominative follows the auxiliary 
and precedes the principal verb. 

Examples. — 1. What has he done to merit censure? 
2. How did the boy escape the danger? 

SPECIAL RULE II. — In colloquial style the subject-nominative 
follows the verbs say, think, and a few others. 

Examples.— 1. "I shall return to-night," said he. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: COLLOCATION. 277 

2. "If I can only get into the yard/ 7 mused the fox. 

SPECIAL RULE III.— When, in forming 1 the subjunctive mode, 
the conjunction if is omitted, the subject-nominative follows 
the verb. 

Example. — Were he present to-day = If he ivere, etc. 

SPECIAL RULE IV. — When, in the latter of two clauses, neither 
or nor is substituted for and not, the subject-nominative fol- 
lows the auxiliary in compound tenses. 

Example. — He answered with hesitation; nor could his 
voice be distinctly heard. 

SPECIAL RULE Y. — When a verb is preceded by the adverbs 
here, there, etc., the subject-nominative generally follows the 
verb. 

Example. — Here stood the temple of Neptune. 

SPECIAL RULE TI. — When a sentence begins with an emphatic 
adjective, the subject-nominative follows the verb. 

Example. — Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 

SPECIAL RULE Til. — When a sentence begins with the exple- 
tive there, the subject-nominative follows the verb. 

Example. — Tliere is a volcano called Vesuvius. 

27. RULE II. — The predicate-nominative follows the verb. 

Examples. — 1. Addison was an accomplished essayist 
2. Pitt became a leader at twenty-five. 

II. The Possessive Case. 

28. RULE m.— A noun or pronoun in the possessive case 
precedes the noun denoting the thing possessed. 

Examples. — 1. 3fen J s homes often go up in smoke. 

2. Our deeds in peace are greater than their deeds in war. 

Remark. — Sometimes the noun-possessive stands alone. 



278 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Example.— Yonder is Mr. Zee's = Mr. Lee's house. 

HI. The Objective Case. 

29. RULE IV. — A noun or pronoun in the objective case] 
follows the word which governs it. 

Examples. — 1. The reapers bind the wheat in sheaves. 
2. The birds begin their songs at dawn. 

Here the words " wheat, 77 " sheaves/ 7 etc., follow the words 
by which they are governed. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — A relative pronoun in the objective case 
generally precedes the governing* verb. 

Example. — That is the merchant whom we met yesterday. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — When a transposition occurs by which 
the subject-nominative follows the verb, the noun or pronoun 
in the objective case precedes the verb. 

Example. — Silver and gold have I none. 

Remark I. — The English idiom admits of considerable free- 
dom in the position of the nominative and objective cases. 

Example. — Me he restored to mine office ; him he hanged. 

Remark 2. — The nominative and objective cases should never 
be so placed as to be mistaken the one for the other. 

Example. — When met the fiery Greeks the Amazons. 

In this example it can not be determined whether the sub- 
ject of the sentence is " Greeks 77 or " Amazons. 71 

IV. The Independent Case. 

30. RULE V. — A noun or pronoun in the independent 
case generally stands near the beginning of the sentence, 
but may occupy any other position. 

Examples. — 1. The fortress taken, all is then our own. 
2. Be all thy enemies like him, O king! 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS : COLLOCATION. 279 



EXERCISES. 

Illustrate the Rules for the Collocation of Nouns and Pro- 
nouns with two examples each. 

V. The Adjective. 

31. RULE VI. — The attributive adjective precedes the 
noun which it modifies. 

Example. — The fragrant lily lifts its waxen cup. 

Here the attributive adjectives "fragrant" and " waxen 7 7 
precede the nouns "lily" and "cup." 

SPECIAL RULE. — For emphasis or euphony the attributive ad- 
jective is sometimes placed after the noun which it modifies. 

Example. — With shadow ominous the cloud came on. 

32. RULE VLL— The predicative adjective stands after 
the noun which it modifies. 

Examples. — 1. The outcry was long and loud. 

2. Matters grew worse as the plan became apparent. 

SPECIAL RULE. — When the subject-nominative follows a verb 
of imperfect predication, the predicative adjective precedes 
the verb. 

Example. — Darker and sterner became the old man's face. 

33. RULE VLTL— The appositive adjective generally fol- 
lows the noun which it modifies* 

Example. — The grapes, purple and luscious, hung above 
our heads. 

exercises. 

Illustrate the Rules for the Collocation of Adjectives with 
two examples each. 



280 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



VI. The Pronoun. 



34. RULE IX. — Persona! and relative pronouns follow 
their antecedents. 

Examples. — 1. Men tremble when they fear. 
2. The poet ivho wrote this song is dead. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — A personal pronoun, used without refer- 
ence to any particular antecedent, stands at the beginning* of 
the clause. 

Example. — He that despiseth books hateth knowledge. 

SPECIAL RULE II. — A relative pronoun, used -without an an- 
tecedent, stands at the beginning of the clause. 

Example. — Who steals my purse steals trash. 



EXERCISES. 

Illustrate with two examples each the Rules for the Collo- 
cation of Pronouns as it respects their antecedents. 

VII. The Verb. 

35. RULE X. — A verb in a finite mode stands between 
the subject-nominative and the object. 

Examples. — 1. The astronomer calculates eclipses. 
2. The tides follow the moon. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — A verb in the imperative mode generally 
stands at the beginning of the sentence. 

Example. — Make hay while the sun shines. 

SPECIAL RULE II.— When the subject-nominative and the ob- 
ject following a verb are thrown out of their natural order, 
the verb may occupy any position in the sentence. 

Examples. — 1. The culprit his own guilt confesses. 
2. Thus ruin all his prospects did Mark Antony. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: COLLOCATION. 281 

36. RULE XL — A verb in the infinitive mode follows the 
word or expression on which it depends. 

Examples. — 1. We urged the 'party to procure guides. 
2. Having determined to speak, he spoke. 

EXERCISES. 

Illustrate with two examples each the Rules for the Collo- 
cation of Verbs. 

VIII. The Adverb. 

37. RULE XII. — An adverb stands in juxtaposition with 
the word which it modifies. 

Examples. — 1. The hound eagerly pursued the hare. 

2. The young man complained bitterly of his lot. 

3. The lad appeared extremely anxious. 

SPECIAL RULE I. — For purposes of emphasis the adverb may- 
be separated from the word which it modifies. 

Example. — Patiently the willing horses drag the plow. 

SPECIAL RILE II. — An adverb modifying- a verb in a com- 
pound tense, stands after the auxiliary and before the prin- 
cipal verb. 

Example. — We coidd hardly believe our senses. 

Remark. —The insertion of an adverb between to, the sign 
of the infinitive, and the verb is erroneous. 

Example. — To slowly trace the forest's shady scene. 



exercises. 

Illustrate with two examples each the Rules for the Collo- 
cation of Adverbs. 
24 



282 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

IX. The Preposition. 

38. RULE XIII. — The preposition precedes the noun or 
pronoun which it governs. 

Example. — The man crept along the ravine, through the 
thicket, to the river. 

SPECIAL RULE. — In poetical usage the preposition is some- 
times placed after the noun or pronoun which it governs. 

Example. — From peak to peak, the rattling crags among. 

X. The Conjunction. 

39. RULE XIV.- The conjunction stands between the 
parts which it connects. 

Examples. — 1. English and French made common cause. 
2. Some tribes were peaceable, but others were warlike. 

XL The Interjection. 

40. RULE XV. — The interjection stands by preference 
at the beginning of the sentence in which it occurs. 

Examples. — 1. Alas! we are soon forgotten. 
2. Oho! you are for that sport, are you? 

exercises. 

I. Point out and correct the errors in Collocation in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. Came on horseback with black hair a man unknown 

2. There in his face a look of anger was. 

3. A book old and a pencil broken on the table lay. 

4. Next a boy by the hand leading his sister passed. 

5. To not speak at all is better than to too quickly speak. 

IT. Illustrate with two examples each the Rules for the Col- 
location of Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS : PUNCTUATION. 283 

SECTION III. — RULES OF PUNCTUATION. 

41. Punctuation is that branch of synthesis which treats 
of the degrees of separation between sentences and parts 
of sentences, and of the marks by which such degrees 
of separation are denoted. 

42. The grammatical separation between sentences 
and parts of sentences is either complete or partial. 

1. Complete separation occurs between sentences only — that 
is, the grammatical connection between each sentence and 
every other is completely broken. 

2. Partial separation occurs between parts of sentences only — 
that is, the connection between adjuncts, phrases, and clauses 
of a sentence is partly broken and partly continuous. 

Remark I. — The degree of separation between the parts of 
a sentence varies from the intimate union of a possessive and 
the noun which governs it to the slight connection between 
the clauses of a compound sentence. 

Example. — 1. Man J s days are few. Close connection, 
2. Life is short: improve it well. Slight connection. 

Remark 2. — The punctuation of a paragraph consists in 
marking every degree of separation between sentences and 
parts of sentences- with an appropriate point. 

43. The points and marks in use in the English lan- 
guage are of two kinds: 

1. Those points which, in addition to marking the degree 
of grammatical separation, indicate a time-pause between the 
parts — called Temporal Pauses. 

2. Those points and marks which determine or modify the 
meaning of the sentences or parts of sentences after which 
they are placed — called Official Points. 



284 ENGLISH GKAMMAR 

44. The four Temporal Pauses in use in the English 
language are : 

1. The Period 

2. The Colon : 

3. The Semicolon . . . ; 

4. The Comma , 

45. The principal Official Points and Marks in use in 
the English language are : 

1. The Interrogation Point ? 

2. The Exclamation Point I 

3. The Dash — 

4. The Parentheses () 

5. The Brackets [ ] 

6. The Quotation Marks . " " 

7. The Apostrophe ' 

8. The Hyphen - 

9. The Brace , . . { 

10. The Asterisk * 

11. The Diaeresis M 

■ 12. The Caret A 

13. The Index 9^* 

14. The Marks of Ellipsis 

15. The Paragraph and Section. ... ^ \ 

16. The Cedilla , 

17. The Quantity Marks . 

18. The Accents / N A 



I. TEMPORAL PAUSES. 

I. The Period. 

46. RULE I. — A period should be placed after every de- 
clarative and imperative sentence. 

Examples. — 1. The pasture lands lay sloping to the sun. 
2. Fear not each sudden sound and shock. 



* * 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: PUNCTUATION. 285 

Remark I. — The only practical difficulty in the application 
of Rule I. is in determining when a sentence is complete. 

Remark 2. — The completeness of a sentence is determined 
by the completeness of the thought expressed by it. If the 
thought is complete, the sentence is complete, If the thought 
is incomplete, the sentence is incomplete. 

Remark 3. — If the thought expressed in one clause seems to 
be a continuation or modification of the thought expressed in 
another clause, no period is admissible between them : the two 
clauses should be united in a complex or a compound sentence. 

Example. — Napoleon's strength was his ambition; and his 
ambition was his ruin. 

Here the thought expressed in the second clause arises from 
the thought expressed in the first ; and no period is admissible. 

Remark 4. — If the thought expressed in one clause seems to 
spring from some source other than the thought expressed hi 
the preceding clause, a period is used between the parts : the 
two clauses should constitute distinct sentences. 

Example. — Below us yawned the gorge a thousand feet in 
depth. An eagle passed on tireless pinion. 

Remark 5. — Relative and hypothetical clauses are not sen- 
tences ; their separation from the clauses on which they depend 
must always be marked by some pause less than a period. 

Examples. — 1. Some of the company knew the men, who 
were anxiously waiting to be recognized. 

2. We hoped to finish the work by autumn — if, indeed^ we 
should ever finish it. 

Remark 6.— A relative clause may become a sentence by 
changing the relative into a demonstrative adjective; and in 
that case a period is used after each sentence. 

Examples. — 1. We heard that the troopers had passed that 
way ; which fact was proved by the tracks of their horses. 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. We heard that the troopers had passed that way. This 
fact was proved by the tracks of their horses, 

47. RULE II. — A period should be placed after every 
abbreviated word. 

Examples. — 1. Hon. Thos. H. Benton was a member of the 
U. S. Senate for thirty years. 

2. G. Washington, b. Feb. 11, 1732, O. S. ; d. Dec. 14, 1799, N. S. 

3. The accident occurred at 3 o'clock p.m., Tues., Nov. 1st. 

4. The ship was lost off the E. coast of S. A., Jan. 20th. 

5. A brilliant sketch of the Pr. of Orange may be found in 
Macaulay's Hist, of Eng., vol. iii., chap. 1. 

Remark I. — When it is intended that an abbreviated name 
shall be pronounced instead of the full name for which it 
stands, no period is used. 

Examples. — Ben Jonson; Tom Jones; Sam Weller. 

Remark 2. — Letters standing for mathematical quantities 
are not abbreviations, and do not require the period. 

Examples. — 1. Let ABC be a triangle having the angles 
A, B, and C. 

2. Let # = the first part; y = t\ie second part; and £ — the 
third part. Then will x -f- y + z = the whole. 

Remark 3. — A letter used for a name in general, is not an 
abbreviation, and requires no period. 

Example. — A's estate = one-half of B J s estate. 

Remark 4. — Ordinal numbers, when composed in part of 
figures, are not regarded as abbreviations. 

Examples. — April 24th; November 16th; 2d May; On the 
1st of October ; The 25th section ; etc. 

Remark 5. — The syllables to, vo, and mo, affixed to figures, 
to denote the character of printed volumes, are not abbrevia- 
tions, and therefore do not require the period. 



SYNTAX. - SYNTHESIS : PUNCTUATION. 287 

Examples. — 4to = quarto; 8vo = octavo; 12mo = duodec- 
imo: also 16mo, 24mo, 64mo, etc. 

Remark 6. — Decimals are pointed off with the period; also, 
the denominations of sterling money when the letters (£., s., d.) 
follow the figures. 

Examples.— 4,5 ft.; 3.1416; £2, 8s. 4d. 

EXERCISES. 

I. In the following sentences insert Periods as required by 
the Rules: 

1. From 8 a m to 1 p m we sat on deck conversing with Mr 
Lewis and Capt Jones The wind was S E ; and the chart 
showed that we were about 40° N Lat 

2. This completed the business The society then adjourned 

3. Give to the hungry, bread Defer not till to-morrow the 
work of to-day 

II. Illustrate with two examples each the different Rules 
for the use of the Period. 

II. The Colon. 

48. RULE ILL — A colon should be placed between the 
clauses of a compound sentence when the connection is 
slight and the conjunction is omitted. 

Example. — Praise not too highly: leave that to flatterers. 

Remark. — If the clauses are closely connected, or if the con- 
junction is used, a semicolon takes the place of the colon. 

Example. — Shun evil; but be not uncharitable. 

49. RULE IV. — A colon should be placed between the 
major divisions of a long complex or compound sentence 
when the minor divisions are separated with semicolons. 



288 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

Example. — The grave of Sebastian Cabot is marked with 
no marble; the place of his burial is unknown; no tablet of 
bronze, erected by princes, bears the record of his daring : but 
his work is written on a continent, and his fame rendered im- 
perishable. 

50. RULE V. — A colon should be placed before a formal 
enumeration of particulars. 

Example. — Grammar is considered under three heads : first, 
Etymology; second, Syntax; third, Prosody. 

51. RULE VI. — A colon should be placed before a quo- 
tation and matter having the form of a quotation when re- 
ferred to by the words this, thus, as follows, etc. 

Examples. — 1. Montgomery answered with these ivords: 
"Men of New York, you will not hesitate to follow me." 

2. We will manage the matter thus : first, w T e will fire a 
gun; then, etc. 

52. RULE VII. — A colon should be placed after the in- 
troductory phrase of an address or letter. 

Examples. — 1. Ladies and Gentlemen: 2. My Dear Sir: 



EXERCISES. 

I. In the following sentences insert Colons and Periods as 
required by the Rules: 

1. You have sometimes said Yes; you have sometimes said 
No; you have sometimes answered nothing how shall we rec- 
oncile such contradictions? 

2. I say this It is better to do well than to say well 

3. Mr President the question before us is one of importance 

II. Illustrate with two examples each the Rules for the use 
of the colon. 



SYNTAX —SYNTHESIS : PUNCTUATION. 289 

III. The Semicolon. 

53, RULE VIII. — The members of a compound sen- 
tence, unless short and closely connected, should be sep- 
arated by semicolons. 

Example. — The procession went silently to the city of the 
dead; the funeral ceremonies were solemnly performed; the 
casket was put into its resting-place; and then the company 
turned silently from the place, sacred now forever. 

Remark. — If the members of the sentence are short and 
closely connected, the comma takes the place of the semicolon. 

Example. — The bell rang 9 and the boys formed in line. 

54. RULE IX. — A semicolon should be placed before an 
informal enumeration of particulars. 

Example. — There are four cases; the nominative, the pos- 
sessive, the objective, and the independent. 

Remark. — The difference between a formal and an informal 
enumeration of particulars, is that the formal enumeration is 
introduced by such words as this, thus, as follows, etc.; and 
the particulars are set ofY with such words as first, second, etc. 

55. RULE X. — In a formal enumeration of particulars 
the particulars should be separated by semicolons. 

Ex ample. — Our educational institutions may be classified 
as follows: first, universities and colleges; second, academies, 
seminaries and high-schools ; third, common schools. 

56, RULE XI. — When, in a long sentence, several clauses 
loosely connected have a common dependence, they should 
be separated by semicolons. 

Example. — When misfortune comes; when the fairest 

prospects fade away; when, on either hand, a limitless desert 
25 



290 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

stretches away to the sky $ then, indeed, do we realize the value 
of true friendship. 

Remark. — If the clauses are short and closely connected the 
comma takes the place of the semicolon. 

57. RULE XII. — A semicolon should be placed before 
the conjunction foe, but, or and, when used to introduce 
an explanatory, inferential, or contrasted clause. 

Examples. — 1. We had supposed that we should enter the 
city from the south; but in this we were mistaken. 

2. At this point we turned to the left ; for the forest of stal- 
actites made it impossible to go straight ahead. 

58. RULE XIII. — The semicolon should be placed be- 
fore the words as, namely, to wit, etc., when used to 
introduce examples. 

Examples. — 1. In English the diphthong ou generally has 
the sound of ow in cow; as, bound, found, somid. 

2. One vocation is universally despised ; to wit, the liar's. 



EXERCISES. 

I. In the following sentences insert according to the Eules 
the required Periods, Colons, and Semicolons: 

1. This bird is fond of drilling holes in the dead limbs of 
trees and for this purpose he is furnished with a strong beak 

2. The purpose of education is threefold first, to give us a 
complete intellectual and moral character second, to fit us for 
the duties of citizenship and third, to give us that inner riches 
which nothing can destroy 

3. There are three divisions of time present, past, and future 

4. Sometimes several letters are used to denote a single 
sound as in beau, freight, etc 

II. Write five sentences requiring the Semicolon. 



SYNTAX.— SYNLHESIS: PUNCTUATION. 291 

IV. The Comma. 

59. RULE XIV. — Every parenthetical word, adjunct, 
phrase, and clause should be set off with commas. 

Examples. — 1. Franklin was, unquestionably, the greatest 
genius of his times. 

2. This principle is, ivithout doubt, fully established. 

3. The debater, eager to close, confused his argument. 

Remark I. — A "parenthetical" word, adjunct, or phrase, is 
one which has the nature of a parenthesis.* Every such ex- 
pression may be omitted without impairing the sentence. 

Remark 2. — An adjunct which is merely restrictive — that is, 
inseparable from the part of the sentence with which it is as- 
sociated — must not be set off with commas. 

Examples. — 1. The only kind of ignorance which is bliss- 
ful is ignorance of sin. 

2. The love of nature is beautiful; the love of truth is sublime. 

Remark 3. — If a parenthetical expression begins or ends a 
sentence, only one comma is required, standing after the part 
at the beginning, or before it at the end. 

Examples. — 1. Of a certainty, haste makes waste. 
2. The case is settled, beyond a doubt. 

Remark 4. — The expression "set off with commas" signifies 
that the part so described has a comma on each side. 

60. RULE XV.— If a compound subject consists of 
more than two parts, they must be separated by commas. 

Examples. — 1. Cities, towns, hamlets, and villages, were 
burned. 

2. Merchants, manufacturers, and mechanics, have made 
common cause. 



* See page 298. 



292 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

Remark. — If the subject consists of two parts only, no comma 
must be used between them. 

Example. — Fruits and flowers were heaped on every hand. 

61. RULE XVI. —The parts of a compound predicate 
connected by and, but, or, nor, etc., must, unless short 
and closely united, be separated by commas. 

Examples. — 1. I could see in the apartment no form or 
outline, nor any thing but smoke. 

2. We here came to a range of hills, and some belts of woods 
running back from the river. 

Remark. — If the two parts of a predicate are short and closely 
connected, the comma is omitted. 

Example. — He came and conquered. 

62. RULE XVII. — A comma must be placed after the 
logical subject of a sentence when it ends with a verb, or 
when it consists of parts which are themselves separated 
by commas. 

Examples. — 1. Those who study, should study with a will. 
2. Carts, wagons, and omnibuses, were packed together. 

63. RULE XVIII. — Appositional expressions should be 
set off with commas. 

Examples. — 1. Napoleon, the emperor ', died in St. Helena. 
2. May, the month of song and flowers, is here. 

Remark I. — If the word in apposition is necessary to com- 
plete the predication, no comma is used. 

Examples.— They elected him President. 

Remark 2. — The parts of a compound proper name, unless 
inverted from their natural order, are inseparable. 

Examples. — Marcus Tullius Cicero ; Adams, John Quincy. 



SYNTAX.— SYNTHESIS: PUNCTUATION. 293 

64. RULE XIX.— An adjunct, phrase, or clause, trans- 
posed from its natural position, is set off with a comma. 

_„ f 1. Sleep is essential to all animals. 

Example. — ■{ 

( 2. To all animals, sleep is essential. 

65. RULE XX. — All words, phrases, etc., in independ- 
ent construction (see pages 68; S3-&, IV.) must be set off 
with commas. 

Examples. — 1. Blow, bugle, blow. 

2. I appeal, men of Athens, to your judgment. 

66. RULE XXI. — The members of a compound sen- 
tence, if short and closely connected, are separated by 
commas. (See page 289, 53, Kemark.) 

Examples. — 1. Leaves were green, and birds were gay. 
2. He went away, but quickly came again. 

67. RULE XXII. — When, to avoid repetition, a verb is 
omitted, its place is marked with a comma. 

Example. — Some came to see; others, to hear. 

68. RULE XXIII. — Words repeated for emphasis should 
be set off with commas. 

Example. — Verily, verily, I say unto you. 

69. RULE XXIV.— The comma should be used between 
correlative clauses. 

Example. — As thy days, so shall thy strength be. 

Remark. — If the correlative clauses are introduced by so that, 
rather than ) or more than, the comma is not required, owing 
to the closeness of the construction. 

Examples. — 1. We would rather return than remain. 
2. He so demeaned himself that all were pleased. 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

70. RULE XXV.— Pairs of words are separated by 
commas. 

Example. — Good and evil, prosperity and misfortune, joy 
and sorrow, sunshine and storm, are strangely blended in the 
life of man. 

71. RULE XXVI. — Words introduced into a quotation 
are set off with commas. 



n\ 



Example. — "An honest man's word," says the proverb, 
is as good as his bond." 



72. RULE XXVII. — A comma must be placed before 
the infinitive mode when it expresses a purpose. 

Example. — We tarried awhile at Springfield, to see the 
tomb of Lincoln. 

73. RULE XXVIII. — A comma is sometimes used in 
order to prevent ambiguity. 

1. He was overtaken perhaps, while sleeping. 

2. He was overtaken, perhaps wiiile sleeping. 

General Remark I. — In cases of doubtful or contradictory 
usage the comma should be omitted. 

Example. — We hurried up and saw the pony dancing. 

General Remark 2. — A long sentence does not necessarily re- 
quire commas, nor does a short sentence preclude them. 

Examples. — 1. It is difficult for men who have for half a 
life-time been accustomed to have their own way in their deal- 
ings with their fellow-men to bear patiently the humiliation 
and chagrin of seeing others preferred and honored above 
themselves. 

2. No, sir; no, sir — I answer you, JVb, no. 

In example 1, no pause is used except a period; in example 
2, seven pauses are required. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS : PUNCTUATION. 295 



EXERCISES. 

I. In the following sentences insert whatever Temporal 
Pauses are required by the Rules: 

1. If fortune plays false do thou play true 

2. Of the five senses sight is the most precious 

3. A professed Catholic he imprisoned the Pope 

4. There are five modes the indicative the subjunctive the 
potential the imperative and the infinitive 

5. Sink or swim live or die survive or perish I give my 
hand and my heart to this vote 

6. "A thing of beauty 77 says Keats " is a joy forever 77 

7. The last stage of his career is this behold him spitted 
with dozens of his corpulent companions and served up a 
vaunted dish on the table of some Southern gastronome —Irving 

II. Illustrate with two examples each the various Rules for 
the use of the Comma. 



II. OFFICIAL POINTS. 

I. The Interrogation Point. 

74. RULE. — An interrogation point must be placed after 
every interrogative sentence, clause, phrase, or word. 

Examples. — 1. Have you repeated the story to others? 

2. He simply answered, "Who told you so?' 7 

3. It is easy enough going up ; but how shall we descend ? 

Remark I. — Sentences which merely assert that a question 
has been asked, do not require the interrogation point. 

Example. — He asked me how long I would remain. 

Remark 2. — If the exact words of a question are quoted the 
interrogation point must stand inside of the quotation points. 

Example. — They called out, "Are you ready?" 



296 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 



EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences insert whatever Points are re- 
quired by preceding Rules : 

1. Whom have we here 

2. Shall the nations again go back to barbarism 

3. How in such an emergency shall justice be done 

4. They replied by asking whether these things were so. 

5. "What to me are difficulties' 7 said Napoleon 

II. The Exclamation Point. 

75. RULE. — An exclamation point must be placed after 
every exclamatory sentence, clause, phrase, or word. 

Examples.— 1. How silently the starlight falls to-night! 

2. Hark! the music of the mountain reed. 

3. O sovereign Blanc! O dread and silent Mount! 

Remark I. — All interjections, except the vocative particle O, 
and the interrogatives eh and 7iey, require the exclamation 
point, according to the general rule. 

Remark 2. — In a succession of exclamatory clauses having a 
common dependence, but one exclamation point is required. 

Example. — How fresh, how green, how fragrant, how full 
of life, are these meadows ! 

Remark 3. — In a succession of exclamatory clauses having 
a common dependence on some preceding part, the exclama- 
tion point is repeated with each clause. 

Example. — How fresh are these meadows ! how green ! etc. 

Remark 4. — An interjection sometimes blends with a short 
exclamatory expression so as to require but one point — which 
stands after the complete expression. 

Examples. — Fie upon such work! Aroint thee, witch! 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS : PUNCTUATION. 297 

Remark 5. — Sometimes, when the exclamatory expression *» 
not inmassionecl, a comma is used for the exclamation point. 

Example. — O gentle waves, ye kiss the pebbly beach. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences insert whatever Points are re- 
quired by preceding Rules: 

1. O rose of May O flower too soon faded 

2. Save me and hover o'er, me w T ith your wings 

You heavenly guards — What w^ould your gracious figure 

3. Alas how is't with you 

That you do bend your eye on vacancy — Shakespeare 

4. What silent still and silent all 

Ah no the voices of the dead 
Sound like a distant torrent's fall — Byron 

III. The Dash. 

76. RULE. — A dash is used to mark a suspension op 
sudden change in the sense, or a break in the construction 
of a sentence. 

Examples. — 1. "We have come into the den of a — " Here 
he was startled by a fearful cry. 

2. "I think I— I — I— 7 ' "No, you don't,' 7 said the wag. 

3. He was born a simpleton, and — has remained so. 

Remark I. — Between a side-head and the subject-matter of 
a paragraph a dash is used after a period (see after "Exam- 
ples" on this page). 

Remark 2. — Between the subject-matter of a quoted para- 
graph and the author's name a dash is used after a period. 

Remark 3. — When the formal introductory words of an ad- 



298 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

dress stand in a line by themselves a dash should be used 
after the colon. 

Example. — Ladies and gentlemen: — 

We have met this evening, etc. 

Remark 4. — When, at the close of a logical subject consist- 
ing of several parts separated by commas or semicolons, the 
words all, these, such, etc., are used to sum up the several par- 
ticulars, a dash follows the comma preceding the predicate. 

Example. — To wander from door to door; to be insulted in 
the street ; to be hooted at and despised ; to be left alone, per- 
ishing of hunger and cold, — such is the beggar's fate. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences insert whatever Points are re- 
quired by preceding Rules : 

1. Look if he turns color Pray you no more 

2. "This is a a a" "Bad business" said the stranger 

3. I will send him this No not to-day 

4. Act act in the living Present 

Heart within and God o'erhead Longfellow 

IV. The Parenthesis, 

77. A Parenthesis is an expression inserted in a sen- 
tence by way of comment or explanation but independ- 
ent in construction. 

Examples.— 1. Mr. Clay (of Kentucky) then arose. 
2. He intends (so it appears) to return to-morrow. 

78. RULE. — Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose 
expressions inserted in a sentence to modify or explain the 
leading statement, when such expressions break the con- 
nection between dependent parts. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS : PUNCTUATION. 299 

Examples. — 1. Every star (so astronomy teaches) is a sun. 
2. Must you ( I fear you must ) lose all your trouble ? 

Remark I. — In dramatic compositions and dialogues, side re- 
marks and stage directions are inclosed in parentheses. 

Example. — Go, get him surgeons. ( Exit Soldier. ) 

Remark 2. — If a parenthesis is complete in construction and 
sense, a period, an exclamation or interrogation point may be 
used before the last curve. (See after "Soldier," above.) 

Remark 3. — If the matter within a parenthesis is incomplete 
in sense, no pause is admissible before the last curve. (See 
Example 2, under Rule above.) 

Remark 4. — Matter within a parenthesis should be punctu- 
ated as the same matter in any other position. 

Remark 5. — If a comma, semicolon, or colon is demanded 
in the position occupied by the parenthesis, the pause usually 
stands after the last curve. 

Example. — If hope comforts us (and who can doubt it?), 
let us hope. 

EXEKCISES. 

Insert in the following sentences whatever Points are re- 
quired by preceding Rules : 

1. I fear the gentleman Mr Wilson has mistaken the point 

2. Back slaves I will return He rushes out 

3. All men so the Declaration has it are created equal 

IV. Brackets. 

79. RULE I. — Brackets are used in quoted passages to 
correct what is manifestly a mistake, to inclose some word 
or words omitted by the author, or to mark manifestations 
of approval or dissent in public speeches. 



300 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 

Examples. — 1. Each one had gone to their [his] home. 
2. The lad lost his knife, and now [he has] found it again. 

80. RULE II. — Brackets are used in lexicography to 
inclose the pronunciation of words. 

Examples. — Phthisic [tizMk], n.; Mirage [mi-razh], n. 

Remark !. — Sometimes brackets are used, as are marks of 
parenthesis, to inclose directions to performers, etc., in dra- 
matic compositions. 

Remark 2. — The matter within brackets is punctuated in the 
same manner as matter within parenthesis. (See Remarks 2 
and 3, page 299.) 

V. Quotation Marks. 

81. RULE. — Quotation marks are used to inclose mat- 
ter cited from another author or speaker. 

Examples. — 1. "Life is real," says the poet. 

2. "Liberty and Union, " were the words of Webster. 

3. "We are now," said the guide, "nearing the summit." 

Remark I.— When the substance only of an extract is given, 
the quotation marks are not required. 

Example. — Franklin said that if we shun pleasure it will 
follow us. 

Remark 2. — The titles of books and of other literary produc- 
tions, as well as quotations from foreign languages, are gener- 
ally set in Italics, without the quotation marks. 

Examples. — Tennyson's Enoch Arden; The London Spec- 
tator; He said, Pax vobiscum. 

Remark 3. — A quotation within a quotation is set off with 
single points. 

Example. — "Do you believe 6 a penny saved Is a penny 
earned*?" said my friend. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: PUNCTUATION. 301 

Remark 4. — If matter quoted consists of several paragraphs 
or of stanzas of poetry, the inverted commas stand at the be- 
ginning of each paragraph or stanzct, and the apostrophes at 
the end of the last only. 

Remark 5. — Matter quoted must be otherwise punctuated as 
though no quotation marks were used. 

VII. The Apostrophe. 

82. RULE. — The apostrophe is used to distinguish the 
possessive case of nouns (see page 66), or to mark the 
omission of a letter or letters from a word. 

Example. — 5 Tis e'en too late; give o'er; the old man's 
work is done. 

VI. The Hyphen. mS 

83. RULE.— The hyphen is used to indicate the divisions 
of syllables (see page 1€), especially where, in writing or 
printing, a word is divided at the end of a line (see the 
word "sentence" in 85. Rule, below), and to separate the 
parts of a compound word. 

Exampl.es. — Sea - water ; bon e - dust ; chamois - skin. 

VIII. The Brace. 

84. RULE. — The brace is used to connect several words 
or expressions having a common dependence on some 
other part. (See Scheme of the Noun, page 52.) 

IX. The Asterisk. 

85. RULE. — The asterisk is affixed to any part of a sen- 
tence to which it is desired to append a foot-note — and 
also to the note. (See page 129.) 

Remark. — When more than one note is desired the dagger 
( t) is used in the same manner as the asterisk. ( See page 54.) 



302 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

XIV. The Diaeresis. 

86. RULE. — The diaeresis is placed over the second of 
two contiguous vowels, to indicate that they do not consti- 
tute a diphthong. 

Examples. — Zoology; aeronaut; coalition. 

Remark. — In current usage the hyphen is improperly em- 
ployed instead of the diaeresis. 

XI. The Caret. 

87. RULE. — The caret occurs in manuscript only, and 
is used to indicate the omission of some part which is in- 
terlined above. 

truth e 

Example. — We hold this to be self-evidnt. 

A A 

XII. The Index. 

88. RULE. — The index [js®**] is used to call particular 
attention to some sentence or paragraph. 

Example. — Ji^ Remember, when you are in the city, to 
visit the Emporium. 

XIIL Marks of Ellipsis. 

89. RULE. — When a part of a word is omitted the omis- 
sion is marked with an extended dash [ ], a series of 

asterisks [###*#], or a succession of periods [ ]. 

XIV. The Paragraph and Section. 

90. RULE. — The principal and subordinate divisions of 
a subject may be marked respectively with the paragraph 
[*f[] and the section [§]. 

Remark. — The paragraph and the section are not much em- 
ployed in current usage. 



SYNTAX. — SYNTHESIS: FIGUKES. 303 

XV. The Cedilla, 

91. RULE. — In words derived from French the letter c, 
occurring in a position to have the sound of k, is rendered 
soft by the cedilla. 

Examples.— Facade; garcon; etc. 

XVI. Quantity Marks. 

92. RULE.— The macron [-] and the breve [ w ] are 
used to indicate respectively the long and the short sound 
of the vowels over which they are placed. 

XVII. Accents. 

93. RULE. — The acute, the grave, and the circumflex 
accents [' v A ] are used to indicate respectively a sharp, a 
depressed, and a wave sound of the syllable over which the 
accent is written. 

Remark. — In elocution the acute accent indicates a rising in- 
flection ; the grave, a falling inflection ; and the circumflex, a 
combination of the two effects. 



EXERCISE. 

Illustrate the uses of the various Points — from Brackets to 
Accents inclusive — with two examples each. 



SECTIOX III.— FIGURES. 

94. Any intentional deviation from the established 
forms of language is called a Figure of Speech. 

95. Deviations from the established grammatical forms 
of the English language are of three kinds: 



304 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

I. Deviations from the authorized spelling of words — called 
Figures of Orthography. 

II. Deviations from the established forms of words — called 
Figures of Etymology. 

III. Deviations from the ordinary construction of words — 
called Figures of Syntax. 

I. Figures of Orthography. 

96. Figures of orthography — that is, deviations from 
the ordinary spelling of words — are two in number: 

1. The spelling of words according to ancient usage — called 
Archaism; as,— 

f 1. Whanne that Aprilis with his shoures sole; for — 
1 2. When that April with his showers sweet 

II. The spelling of words in imitation of a false pronuncia- 
tion — called Mimesis. 

Examples. — 1. " Veil, I think it is rayther good," said Sam. 

2. " Wot I like in that ''ere ivritin\" said Mr. Weller, " is that 
there a 1 n't no Wenuses in it." 

EXERCISES. 

Illustrate the figures of Archaism and Mimesis with five 
examples each. 

II. Figures of Etymology. 

97. Figures of etymology — that is, deviations from 
the ordinary forms of words — are eight in number: 

I. The elision of a letter or letters from the beginning of a 
word — called Aphaeresis. 

Examples. — 'Neath the shade; 'Mid the waves; J Bove the 
mountains. 



SYNTAX.— SYNTHESIS: FIGURES. 305 

II. The elision of a letter or letters from the middle of a 
word — called Syncope. 

Examples. — O'er the hills; E'en to death. 

III. The elision of a letter or letters at the end of a word — 
called Apocope. 

Examples. — Thro' forests wild ; Th' ages past. 

IV. The prefixing of a letter or letters to a word — called 
Prosthesis. 

Examples. — Jxlown the hill; bedecked with flowers. 

V. The annexing of a letter or letters to a word — called 
Paragoge. 

Examples. — Withoute?i end ; The vast# deep. 

VI. The condensing of two syllables into one — called Syn- 
aeresis. 

Examples. — Thon stalk' st alone; The wing'd creature. 

VII. The condensing of two words into one — called Crasis. 
Examples. — I'll go myself; Thou' It not deceive. 

VIII. The separating of the parts of a compound, and the 
introduction of a word or words between them — called Tmesis, 

Examples. — What things soever: To us ivard. 

exercises. 
Illustrate the Figures of Etymology with two examples each. 

III. Figures of Syntax. 

98. Figures of syntax — that is, deviations from the 
ordinary construction of words — are six in number: 

I. The omission of a word or words necessary to the gram- 
26 



306 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

matical construction, but not necessary to the sense, of a sen- 
tence — called Ellipsis. (See page 219.) 

Example. — Who will succeed, must try ■= He who will, etc. 

II. The use of more words than are necessary to the gram- 
matical construction — called Pleonasm. (See page 68.) • 

Example. — The fathers! where are they? 

III. The use of one part of speech, or one modification of 
a word, for another— called En all age. 

Examples. — 1. The foe fought fierce [fiercely]. 
2. Come when the seals are broke [broken]. 

IV. The construing of words according to their sense, in 
violation of grammatical principles — called Syllepsis. 

Examples. — 1. Nelson proceeded to Copenhagen and bom- 
barded them [it]. 

2. The moon looked through her [its] robe of clouds. 

In example 2, the syllepsis is occasioned by a kind of per- 
sonification — one of the figures of Rhetoric. ( See page 56.) 

V. The transposition of a word from its true place as deter- 
mined by the rules of collocation — called Hyperbaton. 

Example. — He stands the tombs among = among the tombs. 

VI. The agreement of a verb or adjective with a remote 
word already demanded by the syntax of the clause in which 
it occurs — called Zeugma. 

Example. — Here ivcts the chariot; here, the arms. 

Here the noun ."arms" is joined in construction with the 
verb "was" — by the figure of zeugma. 



EXERCISES. 

Illustrate the Figures of Syntax with two examples each. 



part m. 



PEOSODT. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
I. FIRST PRINCIPLES. 

1. Prosody is that department of grammar which 
treats of the principles and construction of verse. 

2. An examination of English words will show — 

1. That every syllable is either accented or unaccented. 

2. That the accented syllables may fall without regularity 
or order. 

3. That the accented syllables may recur in a regular order. 

3. When the words of a sentence are so arranged 
that the accented syllables recur without regularity or 
order, the language is called Prose Language. 

Example. — Nations as well as men, fail in nothing which 
they boldly undertake. 

In this example the accented syllables recur without regu- 
larity or order. * 

4. AVhen the words of sentences are so arranged that 



*Sj'llables having the accent are set in Gothic type — unaccented syllables, in 
Roman type. 

(307) 



308 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

the accented syllables recur in a regular order, the lan- 
guage is called Metrical Language. 

Example. — And still they gazed and still the wonder grew, 
That one small head could carry all he knew. 

Here the accented syllables recur in a regular order, and the 
language is metrical. 

5. A single line of metrical language is called a 
Verse. 

Remark. — The word verse is sometimes incorrectly used in- 
stead of stanza. A stanza is a number of metrical lines com- 
bined according to a regular system: each line of metrical 
language constitutes a verse. 

6. Principle. — Every verse may be divided into as 
many parts as there are primary accents. 

Examples. — 1. Hast thou | a charm | to stay | the morn- | 
ing star? 

2. And the might | of the Gen- | tile unsmote | by the sword, 
Hath melt- | ed like snow | from the glance | of the Lord. 

3. Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers 
Life is | but an | empty | dream. 

Each of these verses is divided into as many parts as there 
are primary accents in the verse. It will be seen that the di- 
visions sometimes consist of two and sometimes of three syl- 
lables. 

II. FEET. 

7. The divisions of a verse determined by the above 
Principle arc called Feet. 

1. If the division consists of two syllables, it is called a Dis- 
syllabic Foot. 



PEOSODY. — FEET. 309 

2. If the division consists of three syllables, it is called a Tri- 
syllabic Foot. 

8. The dissyllabic feet used in verse are of four 
kinds : 

I. The Iambus, consisting of an unaccented followed by an ' 
accented syllable, as in com-pe!, re-mote — marked thus: u, a.*' 

II. The Trochee, consisting of an accented followed by an 
unaccented syllable, as in fa-ther, ten-der — marked thus: a, u. 

III. The Spondee, consisting of two accented syllables, as 
in dark days, loud winds — marked thus: a, a. 

IV. The Pyrrhic, consisting of two unaccented syllables, as 
in me-te-ar, pith-z-fr/ — marked thus: u, u. 

Remark I, — The greater part of verse in the English lan- 
guage is written in the iambic foot. This foot is well adapted 
to description and narration. 

Remark 2. — The trochee is much used, and is adapted to 
song-writing and the expression of gay and tender sentiments. 

Remark 3. — The spondee and the pyrrhic are only used to 
vary the form of verses which are written in iambic or tro- 
chaic feet. A verse is rarely composed entirely of spondees, 
and never wholly of pyrrhic feet. 

9. The trisyllabic feet used in English verse are of 
eight kinds: 

I. The Anapest, consisting of two unaccented followed by 
an accented syllable, as in un-der-take, to be-lieve, in a day — 
marked thus: u, u, a. 

II. The Dactyl, consisting of an accented followed by two 
unaccented syllables, as in fort-unate, won-der-ful, strive to-day 
— marked thus: a, u, u. 

III. The Amphibrach, consisting of an unaccented, an ac- 



= accented; u = unaccented. 



310 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

ceii ted, and an unaccented syllable, as in con-fess-ing, re-luc- 
tant — marked thus: u, a, u. 

IV. The Amphimacer, consisting of an accented, an unac- 
cented, and an accented syllable, as in un-der-foot, twice he 
spoke — marked a, u, a. 

V. The Bacchius, consisting of an unaccented followed by 
two accented syllables, as in the brave dead, the great dead — 
marked thus: u, a, a, 

VI. The Antibacchius, consisting of two accented followed 
by an unaccented syllable, as in strong handed, deep caverns, — 
marked a, a, u. 

VIL The Molossus, consisting of three successive accented 
syllables, as in true man-hood, long, hot days — marked a, a, a. 

VIII. The Tribrach, consisting of three successive unaccented 
syllables, asm indis-pw-£a-&fe, cm-so-ri-ly — marked thus: u, u, u. 

Remark I. — Of the trisyllabic feet only the anapest and the 
dactyl are in common use. The remaining six feet are never 
used except to vary the form of verses composed in anapests 
or dactyls. 

Remark 2. — Anapestic verse is well adapted to the writing 
of songs and to the expression of thrilling narrative and heroic 
emotions. 

Remark 3. — Dactylic verse is very difficult to compose, and 
is chiefly used in narrative and reflective poetry. 

Table of Dissyllabic Feet. 

1. Iambus u, a. ] 3. Spondee a, a. 

2. Trochee ...... a, u. | 4. Pyrrhic u, u. 

Table of Trisyllabic Feet. 

1. Anapest u, u, a. 

2. Dactyl a, u, u. 

3. Amphibrach . u, a, u. 

4. Amphimacer . a, u, a. 



5. 


Bacchius . . . 


. u, a, a. 


0. 


Antibacchius 


. a, a, u. 


7. 


Molossus . . . 


. a, a, a. 


8. 


Tribrach . . . 


. u, u, u. 



PKOSODY. — FEET. 31 1 

10. As it respects the feet comprising it, a verse is 
either pure or mixed. 

1. If the feet composing a verse are all of one kind, the verse 
is said to be pure. 

Example. — The isles | of Greece, | the isles | of Greece, 

Where burn- | ing Sap- | pho loved | and sung. 

In this example the feet composing the two verses are all 
iambi, and the verses are therefore pure. 

2. If the feet composing a verse are of different kinds, the 
verse is said to be mixed. 

Example. — Our plains | are broad | and our riv- | ers run 

From the North- | land down | to the land | of 
the Sun. 

In this example the feet composing the two verses are part 
iambi and part anapests, and the verses are therefore mixed. 

11. The last foot of a verse frequently varies from 
the typical foot composing the verse. 

1. The last foot may lack a syllable of being complete, and 
in that case the verse is said to be Catalectic. 

Example. — Be a | hero | in the | strife [ ]. 

This verse is composed of trochees ; a syllable is lacking to 
complete the last foot, and the verse is called catalectic. 

2. The last foot of a verse may contain a redundant syllable, 
and in that case the verse is said to be Hypercatalectic. 

Example.— Then out | spoke brave | Hora- | tins. 

This verse is composed of iambi; the last foot has the re- 
dundant syllable this, and the verse is called hypercatalectic. 

3. A verse having the last foot complete is Acatalectic. 
Example. — Sleep the | sleep | that knows not | breaking. 



312 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

I. Name the several varieties of Feet employed in the fol- 
lowing verses : 

1. By torch and trumpet fast arrayed, 

Each horseman drew his battle-blade. — Campbell. 

2. Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives suhliine. — Longfellow. 

3. Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

4. One more unfortunate., Byron. 
Rashly importunate, 

Gone to her death. — Hood. 

II. Select specimens of Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and 
Dactylic verse. 

III. METER. 

12. The character of a verse, according to the num- 
ber of feet which compose it, is called its Meter. 

1. A verse containing a single foot is called a Monometer. 

Example.— Think of it, 
Drink of it! 

Each of these verses contains a single foot— a dactyl— and 
is therefore a dactylic monometer. 

2. A verse containing two feet is called a Dimeter. 

Example. — From its sourc- | es which well 
In the tarn | on the fell. 

Each of these verses contains two feet — anapests — and is 
therefore an anapestic dimeter. 

3. A. verse containing three feet is called a Trimeter. 



PKOSODY. —METER. 313 

Example. —Then the | roar came | nearer 
Louder | still and | clearer. 

Each of these verses consists of three feet — trochees — and 
is therefore a trochaic trimeter. 

4. A verse containing four feet is called a Tetrameter. 

Example. — The sun || upon | the lake | is low, 

The wild | birds hush | their song. — Scott. 

Each of these verses consists of four feet — iambi — and is 
therefore an iambic tetrameter. 

5. A verse containing five feet is called a Pentameter. 

Example, — Old pol- | iti- | cians chew | on wis- | doni past 
And tot- | tor | on in busi- | ness to | the last. 

Each of these verses is an iambic pentameter. 

6. A verse containing six feet is called a Hexameter. 

Example. — The hills j and val- | leys ring, | and e'en | the 
ech- | oing air 
Seems all | composed | of sounds | about | them 
ev- I ery-where.— Drayton. 

Each of these verses is an iambic hexameter. 

7. A verse containing seven feet is called a Hepta meter. 

Example. — Press where | ye see | my white I plume shine | 
amidst | the ranks | of war, 
And be | your or- | iflamme | to-day | the hel- ( 
met of | Navarre. — Macaulay. 

Each of these verses is an iambic heptameter. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Name the Meters of the following verses: 

1. The shout was hushed on lake and fell, 

The monk resumed his muttered spell. — Scott 

27 



314 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

2. On the mountains of the prairie, 

By the great red pipe-stone quarry. — Longfellow. 

3. And the widows of Asher are loud in their wail, 

And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal. — Byron. 

4. Boom for him into the ranks of humanity, 
Give him a place in your kingdom of vanity ! 

II. Select specimens of verse in Trimeter, Tetrameter, and 
Pentameter 

IV. RHYME. 

13. Metrical language is divided, according to form, 
into two kinds: 

1. That kind of metrical language in which the concluding 
syllables of the verses have a similarity of sound — called Rhyme. 

Examples. — 1. Badiant sister of the day, 

Awake, arise, and come away! 

2. Alas ! for the rar% 
Of Christian charity. 

In the first example "day" and "way," and in the second 
"rarity" and "charity" have a similarity of sound, and are 
rhymes. 

II. That kind of metrical language in which there is no 
similarity of sound in the concluding syllables of the verses — 
called Blank Verse. 

Example. — Take the wings 

Of morning, traverse Barca's desert sands, 
Or lose thyself in the continuous woods 
Where rolls the Oregon and hears no sound 
Save his own dashings, — yet the dead are there. 

These lines, having no similarity of sound in the concluding 
syllables, are blank verse. 



PEOSODY. — KHYME. 315 

14. According to the various degrees of similarity in 
the sound of the rhyming syllables, rhymes are di- 
vided into three classes: I. Perfect Rhymes; II. Ad- 
missible Rhymes; III. Inadmissible Rhymes. 

1. A perfect Rhyme is one in which there is an identity of 
vowel sounds, a dissimilarity of preceding, and an identity of 
succeeding, consonant sounds. 

Examples. — 1. I thought that mist of dawning qvay 
Would never dapple into day, 

2, Up rose the Kim, the mists were curled 
Back from the solitary worfcZ 

In "gray" and "day" there is an identity of vowel sounds. 
The gr and the d — preceding consonant sounds — are dissimi- 
lar ; succeeding consonants, none : the rhyme is perfect. In 
"curled" and "world" there is an identity of vowel sounds. 
The c and the w — preceding consonant sounds — are dissimi- 
lar; succeeding consonant sounds are identical: the rhyme is 
perfect, 

II. An admissible Rhyme is one in which there is an analogy 
of vowel sounds, the consonants obeying the same law as in 
perfect rhyme. 

Examples. — 1. The soul, uneasy and confined from home, 
Rests and expatiates in a life to come. 

2. Who lists may in their mumming see 
Traces of ancient mystery. 

In these rhymes the vowel sounds are analogous — not iden- 
tical: such rhymes are admissible, 

III. An inadmissible Rhyme is one in which, though there is 
a similarity of sound in the rhyming syllables, there is some 
departure from the principles of perfect or admissible rhyme. 

Examples. — 1. Across the deep we take our wa?/, 

From shore and hill we steer away. 



316 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. Yet he was kind, or if severe in aught, 

The love he bore to learning was in fault. — Goldsmith. 

In "way" and "away" the consonants preceding the vowel 
sounds are identical instead of similar ; no syllable must rhyme 
ivith itself. In "aught" and "fault" the vowel sounds are 
identical, according to the rules for perfect rhyme ; but the suc- 
ceeding consonant sounds are dissimilar, contrary to the rule. 
Both rhymes are inadmissible. 

Remark I. — Rhyme appeals to the ear, not to the eye. Weigh 
and say constitute a perfect rhyme, though the orthography 
does not indicate it. So also dumb and come, and beau and 
show. But cough and through, though orthographically analo- 
gous, do not rhyme at all. 

Remark 2. — In trochaic verse the last two syllables should 
rhyme. 

Example. — From the plain and from the valley 
All the sons of freedom va\ly. 

Here we have a perfect trochaic rhyme. The two syllables, 
ley and ly, are identical in sound ; and the accented syllables, 
val and ral, obey the general laws for perfect rhyme. (See I., 
under 14, page 315.) 

Remark 3. — In dactylic verse the last three syllables should 
rhyme. 

Example. — Mad from life's Wxstory, 
Glad to death's mystery. 

Here the last two syllables in the rhyming words are iden- 
tical in sound; and the accented syllables obey the general 
laws of rhyme. 

EXERCISES. 

Select a poem and point out the rhymes as Perfect, Admis- 
sible, or Inadmissible. 



PKOSODY.— THE CLESUKA. 317 



V. THE CiESURA. 

15, Every verse of more than three feet contains a 
rhythmic pause, called the Caesura. 

Example — Thrice happy man, || enabled to pursue 

What all so wish || but want the power to do! » 

» 

16. In the use of the caesura three rules should be 
observed : 

1. The pause should stand near the middle of the verse. 
(See the above example.) 

2. The pause must not divide a word. 

f And Belgium's capital || had gathered then. 
^ Correct. 

I And Belgium's cap-[|ital had gathered then. 
I Incorrect 

3. The pause must not separate an adjective from the noun 
which it modifies, or an adverb from its verb, when the one 
immediately follows the other. 

Remark. — In addition to the primary pause, pentameter, 
hexameter, and heptameter verses have certain secondary 
pauses dividing the parts on each side of the principal caesura. 

Example. — Oh! how our hearts | were beating |[ when | at 
the dawn of day, 
We saw the army | of the League [[drawn out | 
in long array. 

Here the places of the secondary pauses are marked by the 
single vertical bars. 

EXERCISES. 

Select a poem, and point out the Caesuras in the verses. 



318 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



VI. STANZAS. 

16, Two or more verses, combined together accord- 
ing to a system, constitute a Stanza. 

17. The number of verses in English stanzas varies 
from two to nine. 

1. The shortest and simplest English stanza is a two-line 
rhyming couplet. 

Ex. — Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then, 

Bowed with her four-score years and ten. 

2. A three-line rhyming stanza is occasionally employed in 
English poetry. 

Ex. — Then to the still, small voice I said: 
"Let me not cast in endless shade 
What is so wonderfully made.' 7 — Tennyson. 

3. The four-line rhyming stanza is the commonest of all the 
forms employed in English poetry. 

Ex. — The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
Await alike the inevitable hour; 
The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — Gray. 

Remark I. — Of the four-line stanzas there are many varie- 
ties — trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter; iambic, tro- 
chaic, anapestic, etc. When the stanza consists of alternate 
iambic tetrameters and iambic trimeters, rhyming either con- 
secutively or alternately, it constitutes the familiar hymn- 
measure, called Common Meter. 

Ex. — Happy the heart where graces reign, 
Where love inspires the breast; 
Love is the brightest of the train, 
And strengthens all the rest. — Watts. 



PROSODY . — STANZAS. 319 

Remark 2. — If the first verse of a common meter stanza be 
shortened to a trimeter, the stanza becomes Short Meter. 

Ex. — Oh, where shall rest be found, — 
Rest for the weary soul? 
'Twere vain the ocean's depths to sound, 
Or pierce to either pole. — Montgomery, 

Remark 3. — If the second and fourth verses of a common 
meter stanza be lengthened into tetrameters, the stanza be- 
comes Long Meter. 

Ex. — The billows swell, the winds are high, 
Clouds overcast my wintry sky; 
Out of the depths to Thee I call; 
My fears are great, my strength is small. — Cowpcr. 

Remark 4. — Besides common, short, and long meter, many 
hymn-stanzas are written in what are called Particular Meters. 

4. The five-line stanza is a rarely used, but elegant, combina- 
tion of verses. 

Ex. — The face which, duly as the sun, 

Rose up for me with life begun, 
To mark all bright hours of the day 
With hourly love, is dimmed away, — 

And yet my days go on, go on. — Browning. 

5. The six-line stanza has several forms, and is much used in 
English poetry. 

Ex. — A king sat on the rocky brow 

Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; 

And ships by thousands lay below, 
And men in nations, — all w T ere his! 

He counted them at break of day, 

But when the sun set, where were they? — Byron. 

G. The seven-line stanza is but little used, and is known as 
Rhyme Royal. 



320 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

Ex. — For, lo! the sea that fleets about the land, 
And like a girdle clasps her solid waist, 
Music and measure both doth understand; 
For his great crystal eye is always cast 
Up to the moon, and on her fixeth fast; 
And as she in her pallid sphere, 
So danceth he about the center here. — Davis. 

7. The eight-line stanza most in use is called Ottava Rima. 

Ex. — At first a universal shriek then rushed 

Louder than the loud ocean, like a crash 

Of echoing thunder; and then all was hushed, 
Save the wild wind and the remorseless dash 

Of billows; but at intervals there gushed, 
Accompanied with a convulsive splash 

A solitary shriek — the bubbling cry 

Of some strong swimmer in his agony. — Byron. 

8. The nine-line combination forms the Spenserian Stanza. 

Ex. — Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro, 

And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress, 
And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago 

Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness; 

And there were sudden partings, such as press 
The life from out young hearts, and choking sighs 

Which ne'er might be repeated; who could guess 
If ever more should meet those mutual eyes, 
Since upon night so sweet such awful morn could 
rise? — Byron. 

Remark. — The Sonnet, consisting of fourteen verses variously 
arranged, is considerably used in English poetry. 



EXERCISES. 

Select poems illustrating the various kinds of Stanzas. 



PKOSODY. — SCANSION. 32 1 



VI. SCANSION. 

17. The process of giving in proper order the feet, me- 
ter; and other characteristics of verse, is called Scansion. 

ORDER OF SCATHING TERSE. 

18, The order of scanning verse is: 

1. Rhyme or Blank Verse, and why; and, if Rhyme^ 

2. In Stanzas or Continuous; and, if Stanzas, 

3. The kind of Stanza, and why; 

4. The kind of Foot, and why ; 

5. The kind of Meter, and why; 

6. Pure or Mixed, and why; 

7. Acatalectic, Catalectic, or Hypereatalectic, and why; 

8. Scan. 

MODEL FOR SCANNING, 

All day long through Frederick street 
Sounded the tread of marching feet. — Whittier. 

All day long, etc., is verse in rhyme; the extract is a stanza; a 
two-line stanza rhyming consecutively; trochaic verse, be- 
ing composed in trochees; tetrameter, having four feet in 
each verse ; mixed verse, having the third foot of the first 
verse, and the first foot of the second verse, dactyls; cata- 
lectic, each verse lacking one unaccented syllable of being 
complete. 

All day | long through | Fred-er-ick j street [ ] 
Sound-ed the | tread of | march-ing | feet [ ]. 

With this model, and such variations and modifications 
thereof as are readily suggested, all varieties of English verse 
may be scanned. 



322 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

According to the Model scan the following verses: 

1. There is a roaring in the bleak- grown pines 
When Winter lifts his voice. — Keats. 

2. The Peri yet may be forgiven 
Who brings to this eternal gate 

The gift that is most dear to heaven. — Moore. 

3. But little he'll reck if they let him sleep on 

In a grave where a Briton has laid him. — Wolfe. 

4. Our misty day-dreams blend in sweet confusion 

The wintery landscape and the summer skies. — Holmes. 

5. From the stars of heaven and flowers of earth, 
From the pageant of power and the voice of mirth, 
From the mist of morn on the mountain's brow, 
From childhood's song and affection's vow, 
There breathes but one record. — Jewsbury. 

6. The isle is now all desolate and bare, 

Its dwellings down, its tenants passed aw T ay ; 
None but her own and father's grave is there, 

And nothing outward tells of human clay ; 
Ye could not know where lies a thing so fair, 

No stone is there to show, no tongue to say, 
What was; no dirge, except the hollow sea's, 
Mourns o'er the Beauty of the Cyclades. — Byron. 

7. So live that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan that moves 

To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 

His chamber in the silent halls of death, 

Thou go not, like the quarry slave at night, 

Scourged to his dungeon, but sustained and soothed 

By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 

Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 

About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. — Bryant. 



INDEX. 



Abridgment, "Discussion of, 232-234. 

Absolute Elements, Definition of, 218. 

Abstract Noun, Definition of, 50. 

Acatalectic, Meaning of, 311. 

Accent, Definition of, 29; principles of, 
29, 30; basis of meter, 307, SOS. 

Accent Marks, Rules for, 303. 

Accidental Elements, Definition of, 20G ; 
discussion of, 206, 207. 

Active Voice, Definition of, 124. 

Addison, Extracts from, 8, 117. 

Adjective, Definition of, 37,96; classifi- 
cation of, 96-107 ; descriptive, 97-99; 
definitive, 99-107; scheme of, 108; 
comparison of, 109-113 ; parsing of, 114- 
116; pronominal, 101-106; numeral, 
106, 107 ; syntax of, 262-266. 

Adjectival Preposition, Definition of, 
"iSii 

Adjective Elements, Definition of, 207, 
213. 

Adjunct Elements, Discussion of, 208, 
213, 217. 

Adverb, Definition of, 37, 172; classifica- 
tion of, 172-179; of time, 176; of place, 
176 ; of cause, 177 ; of manner, 177 ; of 
degree, 177 ; numeral, 177 ; expletive, 
178 ; scheme of, 179 ; comparison of, 
179-181 ; positive degree of, 179 ; com- 
parative degree of, 180; superlative 
degree of, 180; parsing of, 181-184; 
syntax of, 270-272 ; collocation of, 281. 

Adverbial Adjuncts, Definition of, 178 ; 
parsing of, 183. 

Adverbial Clause, Discussion of, 230, 
233. 

Adverbial Elements, Definition of, 207. 

Alphabet, Definition of, 13. 

An and A, Y</hen used, 100. 

Anapest, Definition of, 309. 

Analysis, Definition of, 201,202; general 
discussion of, 202-248 ; order of, 220; 
models for, 220-223 ; diagrams of, 223- 
228, 235-238, 243-247 ; exercises in, 228, 
239, 248. 



Anglo-Saxon, Words from, 33. 
Antecedents of Pronouns, Discussion 

Of, 79, 259-261. 
Aphaeresis, Definition of, 304. 
Apocope, Definition of, 305. 
Apostrophe, Rules for, 301. 
Apposition, Discussion of, 257-258. 
Appositive Adjective, Definition of, 

263 ; collocation of, 279. 
Appositive Relation, Discussion of, 257- 

258. 
Archaism, Definition of, 304. 
Articles, Definition of, 99 ; discussion of. 

99-101. 
Asterisk, Rules for, 301. 
Attributive Adjective, Definition of, 

263 ; collocation of, 279. 
Auxiliary Verb, Discussion of, 121- 

122. 

Bancroft, Extract from, 198. 
Blank Verse, Definition of, 314. 
Brace, Rules for, 301. 
Brackets, Rules for, 299, 300. 
Browning, Extract from, 319. 
Bryant, Extracts from, 8, 71, 314, 322. 
Byron, Extracts from, 36, 77, 188, 195, 312, 
314, 319, 320, 322. 

Csesura, Definition of,* 317; discussion 
of, 317. 

Campbell, Extract from, 312. 

Cardinal Adjectives, Discussion of, 106, 
107. 

Caret, Rule for, 302. 

Case, Definition of, 39, 65 ; discussion of, 
65-69. 

Case - Forms, List of, 39-40. 

Catalectic, Meaning of, 311. 

Causal Clause, Discussion of, 230, 233. 

Cedilla, Rule for, 303. 

Classification, Definition of, 12,36; dis- 
cussion of, 36-38. 

Clause Elements, Discussion of, 208. 

Clauses, Discussion of, 229-232. 

(323) 



324 



INDEX. 



Collective Nouns, Definition of, 51; syn- 
tax of, 259, 267. 

Collocation, Rules of, 276-282. 

Colon, Rules for, 287, 288. 

Comma, Rules for, 291-295. 

Common Meter, Definition of, 318. 

Common Noun, Definition of, 49, 50. 

Comparative Degree, Definition of, 109 ; 
methods of forming, 110. 

Comparison, Definition of, 45 ; methods 
of, 109-112 ; irregular, 111, 112 ; table of, 
112. 

Comparison - Forms, Discussion of, 45. 

Complementary Elements, Discussion 
of, 216-217. 

Complex Sentence, Definition of, 204; 
discussion of. 229-239 ; clauses of, 229- 
231 ; order of analysis of, 234, 235 ; dia- 
grams of, 235-238 ; exercises in, 239. 

Compound Conjunction, Definition of, 
193. 

Compound Personal Pronoun, Defini- 
tion of, 84 ; declension of, 85. 

Compound Preposition, Definition of, 
186. 

Compound Relative Pronoun, Defini- 
tion of, 87 ; declension of, 87. 

Compound Sentence, Definition of, 240; 
discussion of, 240-247 ; order of anal- 
ysis of, 242; model for analysis of, 
242 ; diagrams for analysis of, 243-247 ; 
exercises in analysis of, 248. 

Compound Verbs, Discussion of, 165. 

Concrete Noun, Definition of, 50. 

Conjugation, Definition of, 134; method 
of forming, 134-136; tables of, 138- 
158. 

Conjunction, Definition of, 38, 189; clas- 
sification of, 189-193; parsing of, 194, 
195 ; syntax of, 274-275 ; collocation of, 
282. 

Conjunctive Adverb, Definition of, 175. 

Connective Elements, Definition of, 
207 ; discussion of, 218. 

Consonants, Definition of, 14 ; discussion 
of, 14, 27. 

Coordinative Conjunction, Definition 
of, 190; syntax of, 274. 

Copula, Discussion of, 121,122. 

Correlative Adverb, Definition of, 175. 

Correlative Conjunction, Definition of, 
192. 

Cowper, Extract from, 319. 

Crasis, Definition of, 305. 

Dactyl, Definition of, 309. 
Dash, Rules for, 297, 298. 
Davis, Extract from, 320. 
Declarative Sentence, Definition of, 

202. 



Declension, Of the noun, 69-71; of the 
pronoun, 83, 85-88. 

Defective Verb, Discussion of, 165. 

Definite Article, Discussion of, 99, 100. 

Definitive Adjective, Definition of, 93 ; 
kinds of, 99 ; discussion of, 99- 
107. 

Demonstratives, Discussion of, 102, 103 ; 
list of, 102. 

Derivation, Definition of, 12, 31 ; discus- 
sion of, 33-35 ; paronymous, 31-32 ; his- 
torical, 33-35. 

Descriptive Adjective, Definition of, 
96 ; kinds of, 97 ; discussion of, 97-99. 

Diaeresis, Rule for, 302. 

Diagrams, Of analysis, 223-227, 235-239, 
243-247. 

Dickens, Extracts from, 11, 195, 304. 

Dimeter, Definition of, 312. 

Diphthongs, Definition of, 14 ; functions 
of, 26. 

Dissyllable, Definition of, 23. 

Dissyllabic Feet, Definition of, 308; 
table of, 310. 

Distributives, Discussion of, 104 ; syntax 
of, 260, 264. 

Elements, Definition of, 206 ; kinds of, 
206-208 ; scheme of, 209 ; in subject, 
213; in predicate, 216. 

Ellipsis, Definition of, 218-219; discus- 
sion of, 219 ; figure of, 3C6. 

Ellipsis Marks, Rules for, 302. 

Emphatic Form, Of verb, 137, 156, 157. 

Enallage, Definition of, 306. 

English Grammar, Definition of, 9 ; di- 
vision of, 10 ; general treatment of 
(Etymology), 11-198 (Syntax),. 199-306 
(Prosody), 307-322. 

Essential Elements, Definition of, 206 ; 
discussion of, 206. 

Etymology, Definition of, 9, 11 ; general 
treatment of, 11-198 ; discussion of, 11 ; 
figures of, 304, 305. 

Exclamation Point, Rule for. 296. 

Exclamatory Sentence, Definition of, 
203. 

False Syntax, Exercises in, 252,254,256, 

262, 206, 270, 272, 273. 
Feet, Definition of, 308; discussion of. 

308-312. 
Figures, Definition of, 303 ; discussion 

of, 303-306. 
First Person, Discussion of, G3. 
First Principles, Of Etymology, 7-10; 

of Syntax, 199-201; of Prosody, 307- 

308. 
Future Perfect Tense, Definition of, 132. 
Future Tense, Definition of, 132. 



INDEX. 



325 



Gender, Definition of, 42, 53 ; kinds of, 

53-54; tables of, 55,56; comments on, 

54, 56. 
Gender- Forms, List of, 42, 43, 55-56. 
Gibbon, Extract from, 195. 
Goldsmith, Extract from, 316. 
Grammar. (See English Grammar.') 
Grammatical Agreement, Definition of, 

249. 
Grammatical Government, Definition 

of, 249. 
Grammatical Modification, Definition 

Of, 249. 
Grammatical Predicate, Definition of, 

212. 
Grammatical Property, Definition of, 12. 
Grammatical Subject, Definition of, 211. 
Gray, Extracts from, 77, 117, 228, 318. 

'"Halle ck, Extract from, 188. 
Heptameter, Definition of, 313. 
Herbert, Extract from, 184. 
Hexameter, Definition of, 313. 
Holland, Extract from, 198. 
Hood, Extracts from, 198, 312. 
Huxley, Extract from, 248. 
Hyperbaton, Definition of, 306. 
Hypercatalectic, Meaning of, 311. 
Hyphen, Rules for, 301. 
Hypothesis, Note on, 139. 
Hypothetical Clause, Discussion of, 230. 

Iambus, Definition of, 309. 

Idea, Definition of, 7, 8. 

Imperative Mode, Definition of, 128; 
discussion of, 128-130 ; method of form- 
ing, 136. 

Imperative Sentence, Definition of, 203. 

Indefinite Article, Discussion of, 99, 100. 

Indefinite Pronouns, Definition of, 81 ; 
list of, 81 ; declension of, 88, 89. 

Indefinites, Discussion of, 104, 105. 

Independent Case, Definition of, 68, 69; 
syntax of, 257 ; collocation of, 278. 

Independent Elements, Definition of, 
207; discussion of, 218. 

Index, Rule for, 302. 

Indicative Mode, Definition of, 125; 
method of forming, 134, 135. 

Infinitive Mode, Definition of, 130; 
method of forming, 136 ; syntax of, 
268, 269 ; collocation of, 281. 

Inflection, Definition of, 12, 39 ; discus- 
sion of, 39-47. 

Interjection, Definition of, 38, 196; list 
of, 196 ; parsing of, 197, 19S ; syntax of, 
275 ; collocation of, 2S2. 

Interjectional Elements, Definition, of, 
218. 

Interrogation Point, Rule for, 295. 



Interrogative Adjective, Discussion of, 

105, 106. 
Interrogative Adverb, Definition of, 

175. 
Interrogative Form, Of verb, 158. 
Interrogative Pronoun, Definition of, 

81 ; declension of. 88. 
Interrogative Sentence, Definition of, 

202. 
Intransitive Verb, Definition of, 118. 
Irregular Verbs, Discussion of, 123; for- 
. mation of, 158 ; table of, 159-164. 
Irving, Extracts from, 184, 200. 
Italics, Illustrated, 13; rules for, 22. 

Johnson, Extract from, 239. 

Keats, Extracts from, 2-18, 322. 

Lamb, Extract from, 239. 

Language, Definition of, 7, 8, 200. 

Latin, Words from, 34. 

Letters, Definition of, 12; analysis of, 

13 ; discussion of, 13-22. 
Liquids, Definition of, 15. 
Logical Predicate, Definition of, 212. 
Logical Subject, Definition of, 211. 
Longfellow, Extracts from, 76, 248, 312, 

314. 
Long Meter, Definition of, 319. 

Macaulay, Extracts from, 248, 313. 
Meter, Definition of, 308, 312 ; discussion 

of, 312-314. 
Milton, Extracts from, 117, 188. 
Mimesis, Definition of, 304. 
Modal Adverb, Definition of, 174. 
Mode, Definition of, 125 ; discussion of, 

125-131 ; method of forming, 134-136. 
Modifying Elements, Definition of, 207 ; 

classification of, 213 ; in subject, 213 ; 

in predicate, 216. 
Monometer, Definition of, 312. 
Monosyllable, Definition of, 23. 
Montgomery, Extracts from, 239, 319. 
Moore, Extracts from, 188, 228, 322. 
Multiplicatives, Discussion of, 107. 
Mutes, Definition of, 14. 

Negative Form, Of verb, 157. 

Nominative Case, Definition of, 39, 69 ; 
syntax of, 251, 252; collocation of, 276. 

Norman French, Words derived from, 34. 

Noun, Definition of, 36 ; classification of, 
48-52 ; scheme of, 52 ; properties of, 53- 
69; gender of, 53; number of, 57; 
person of, 63-65 ; case of, 65-69 ; declen- 
sion of, 69-71 ; parsing of, 72-77 ; syn- 
tax of, 251-258; collocation of, 276- 
278. 



326 



INDEX. 



Number, Definition of, 41, 57 ; tables of, 
58-61 ; comments on, 61, 62 ; of verbs, 
132, 133 ; of pronouns, 259-261. 

Number Forms, List of, 41, 58-61. 

Numerals, Discussion of, 106, 107. 

Objective Case, Definition of, 39, 69 ; 
syntax of, 254-256; collocation of, 
278. 

Objective Elements, Definition of, 206; 
discussion of, 216. 

Official Points, Definition of, 283 ; list 
of, 284 ; rules for, 295-302. 

Ordinals, Discussion of, 107. 

Orthoepy, Definition of, 12, 25 ; discus- 
sion of, 25-30. 

Orthography, Definition of, 12; discus- 
sion of, 12-22 ; figures of, 304. 

Ottava Kama, Definition of, 320. 

Paragoge, Definition of, 305. 
Paragraph, Rule for, 302. 
Parenthesis, Rules for, 298, 299. 
Parsing, Definition of, 72; order of, 72, 

90, 114, 166, 181, 187, 194, 197; models 

for, 73-76, 90-94, 114-116, 166-170, 181-183, 

187-188, 194-195, 197; exercises in, 76, 

95, 117, 171, 184, 188, 195, 198, 252, 254, 

256, 262, 270, 272, 275. 
Participial Noun, Definition of, 51. 
Participial Preposition, Definition of, 

186. 
Participle, Definition of, 130; method 

of forming, 136 ; syntax of, 269. 
Parts of Speech, Definition of, 38 ; list 

of, 38. 
Passive Voice, Definition of, 124 ; 

method of forming-, 136. 
Past Participle,' How formed, 131. 
Past Perfect Tense, Defined, 132. 
Past Tense, Defined, 132. 
Pentameter, Defined, 313. 
Perfect Participle, How formed, 131. 
Period, Rules for, 284-287. 
Person, Definition of, 44,63; of verbs, 

46, 132-133; kinds of, 63 ; discussion of, 

63-65. 
Personal Pronoun, Definition of, 79 ; 

declension of, 83 ; compound, 84 ; 

syntax of, 258-262; collocation of, 280. 
Person Forms, List of, 44. 
Phrase Elements, Discussion of, 208, 

215, 217. 
Pleonasm, Definition of, 68, 306. 
Plural Number, Definition of, 41, 57; 

methods of forming, 58. 
Poe, Extract from, 184. 
Polysyllable, Definition of, 23. 
Pope, Extracts from, 95, 313. 



Possessive Case, Definition of, 39, 69 ; 
methods of forming, 66-67 ; syntax 
of, 252-254 ; collocation of, 277-278. 

Possessive Elements, Definition of, 
214. 

Potential Mode, Definition of, 127 ; dis- 
cussion of, 127-128; method of form- 
ing, 135-136; comments on, 127,141. 

Predicate, Of sentence, 204-206 ; forms 
of, 210. 

Predicative Adjective, Definition of, 
263 ; collocation of, 279. 

Preposition, Definition of, 38, 185 ; classi- 
fication of, 185-187; parsing of, 187- 
188; objective governed by, 256; syn- 
tax of, 272-273 ; collocation of, 282. 

Present Participle, How formed, 130. 

Present Perfect Tense, Defined, 132. 

Present Tense, Defined, 132. 

Principal Parts, Of verb, 138. 

Progressive Form, Of verb, 137, 153- 
156. 

Pronoun, Definition of, 37, 78; classifica- 
tion of, 78-82; declension of, 83-89; 
scheme of, 82; parsing of. 89-95; 
syntax of, 258-262 ; collocation of, 280. 

Proper Noun, Definition of, 49, 50. 

Prose, Definition of, 10, 307. 

Prosody, Definition of, 10, 307; discus- 
sion of, 307-322. 

Prosthesis, Definition of, 305. 

Punctuation, Definition pf, 283 ; marks 
of, 284 ; rules of, 284-303. 

Pyrrhic, Definition of, 309. 

Quantity Marks, Rules for, 303. 
Quotation Marks, Rules for, 300-301. 

Relative Clause, Discussion of, 230- 
232. 

Relative Pronoun, Definition of, 80 ; de- 
clension of, 85-86; compound, 87; 
collocation of, 280. 

Responsive Adverb, Definition of, 174 

Rhyme, Definition of, 314 ; discussion of, 
314-316. 

Rogers, Extract from, 239. 

Roman Letters, Illustrated, 13. 

Rules for Capitals, 18-22. 

Rules of Collocation, Defined, 250; dis- 
cussion of, 276-282. 

Rules of Figures, Defined, 250; discus- 
sion of, 303-300. 

Rules of Punctuation, Defined, 250; dis- 
cussion of, 283-303. 

Rules of Synthesis, Defined, 250; dis- 
cussion of, 251-275. 

Rules of Syntax, Defined, 250 ; discus- 
sion of, 251-3C6. 



INDEX. 



827 



Scansion, Definition of, 321 ; discussion 
of, 321-322 ; order of, 321 ; model for, 
321 ; exercise in, 322. 

Schiller, Extract from, 248. 

Scott, Extracts from, 76, 95, 313. 

Script, Illustrated, 13. 

Second Person, Discussion of, 64. 

Section, Rule for, 302. 

Semicolon, Kules for, 289-290. 

Sentence, Definition of, 7, 8; illustra- 
tions of, 199, 200 ; classification of, 202 
-205; simple, 203, 209-228; complex, 
204, 229-239 ; compound, 204, 240-248. 

Shakespeare, Extracts from, 77, 198, 
248. 

Shall and Will, Comments on, 139. 

Short Meter, Definition of, 319. 

Sibilants, Definition of, 15. 

Simple Adverb, Definition of, 173. 

Simple Preposition, Definition of, 186. 

Simple Sentence, Definition of, 203 ; 
discussion of, 209-228 ; order of anal- 
ysis of, 220 ; models for analysis of, 
220-223; analysis of by diagram, 223- 
227. 

Singular Number, Definition of, 41, 57. 

Sonnet, Definition of, 320. 

Sounds, Classification of, 13-15. 

Southey, Extracts from, 184, 237. 

Spelling, Definition of, 15 ; principles of, 
15-J7. 

Spenserian Stanza, Definition of, 320. 

Spondee, Definition of, 309. 

Stanza, Definition of, 318; discussion of, 
318-320. 

Subject, Of thought, 48; of sentence. 
204, 206, 209 ; kinds of, 210-211. 

Subjunctive Mode, Definition of, 126 ; 
discussion of, 126-127 ; method of 
forming, 135 ; comments on, 139, 
144. 

Subordinative Conjunction, Definition 
of, 191 ; syntax of, 274-275. 

Substantive Verb, Defined, 118, 121 ; 
conjugation of, 138-142. 

Superlative Degree, Definition of, 109; 
method of forming, 111. 

Syllabication, Definition of, 12, 23. 

Syllables, Classification of, 23. 

Syllepsis, Definition of, 306. 

Synceresis, Definition of, 305. 

Syncope, Definition of, 305. 

Synopsis, of verbs, 142, 146. 

Syntax, Definition of, 9, 10, 199 ; general 
discussion of, 199-306 ; first principles 
of, 199-201; rules of, 250-306; figures 
of, 304. 305-3C6. 

Synthesis, Definition of, 201, 249; dis- 
cussion of, 249-306 ; rules of, 251-275. | 



Temporal Pauses, Definition of, 283; 
list of, 284 ; rules for, 284-295. 

Tennyson, Extracts from, 36, 228, 318. 

Tense, Definition of, 47, 124 ; discussion 
Of, 131-132. 

Tetrameter, Definitioivof, 313. 

Third Person, Discussion of, 64. 

Thought, Definition of, 7, 8. 

Tmesis, Definition of, 305. 

To Be, Uses of, 121 ; conjugation of, 138- 
141. 

To Love, Conjugation of, 143-146 ; syn- 
opsis of, 146 ; passive voice of, 150- 
153. 

To See, Conjugation of, 147-150; syn- 
opsis of, 150. 

To Take, Conjugation of, 156-157. 

To Walk, Conjugation of, 153-156. 

Transitive Verb, Definition of, 118 ; gov- 
ernment of objective by, 254. 

Trimeter, Definition of, 312. 

Triphthong, Definition of. 14. 

Trisyllabic Feet, Definition of, 309; 
table of, 310. 

Trisyllable, Definition of, 23. 

Trochee, Definition of, 309. 

Tyndall, Extract from, 32. 

Verb, Definition of, 37, 118 ; classification 
of, 118-124; transitive, 118; intransi- 
tive, 118 ; substantive, 121 ; auxiliary, 
122 ; regular, 123 ; irregular, 123 ; prop- 
erties of, 124-133 ; voice of, 124 ; modes 
of, 125-131; tenses of, 131-132; number 
and person of, 132-133; forms of in 
conjugating, 137 ; principal parts of 
138; scheme of, 105; parsing of, 166- 
171 ; syntax of, 266-269 ; collocation of, 
280. 

Verbal Noun, Definition of, 51. 

Verbal Preposition, Definition of, 
186. 

Verse, Definition of, 10, 308 ; general dis- 
cussion of, 308-322. 

Vocative Elements, Defined, 218. 

Voice, Discussion of, 124-125. 

Vowels, Definition of, 71 ; list of, 13 ; 
functions of, 25-26. 

Watts, Extract from, 318. 

Whittier, Extracts from, 77, 117, 228, 

321. 
Willis, Extract from, 171. 
Whose, Comments on, 86. 
Word, Definition of, 7, 8. 
Word -Forms, Summary of, 47. 
"Wordsworth, Extracts from, 184, 239. 

Zeugma, Definition of, 306. 



